Sociological Methods - created from Mind Map

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Types of Data

Methodology

Viewpoints

Factors That Affect Choice of Topic

The Research Process

Consideration Factors

Values in Research

Modernity and Post Modernity

Sociolgy as Science

Sociology as Social Policy

Quantitative data is in numerical form

Qualitative data can be audio, visual, written

Used during experiments to test a hypothesis

More reliable as it is easy to reproduce, but less valid because people can't share their personal opinions

Used when researchers observe social life in order to develop new theories

Less reliable (harder to reproduce and get the same results) but more valid as you can talk to each person individually

Methodology refers to the methods researchers use to collect data, as well as the philosophy underlying the production of sociological data

Methodological pluralism refers to the use of a variety of methods and types of data in a single research study

Triangulation refers to the use of a variety of methods and different types of data to cross-check that the results obtained by one singular method are reliable

This might include using qualitative methods, like an interiew to check against a quantitative survey

Positivism

Interpretivism

Refers to the belief that there ae "social facts" that can be studied objectively

Emphasises the use of quantitative data

Used by Marxists and functionalists as they believe that through science we can move forward in society

August Compte developed the theoretical perspective of positivism in regards to conducting research

Research methods include: laboratory experiments, the comparative method, social surveys, structured questionnaires, formal/structured interviews, non-participant observation, official statistics, content analysis

High in reliability and objectivity

Positivists believe that society could be explained using scientific principles based on objetivity, reliability and generalisation which can be observed through quantitative data

Positivists believe that you can acquire a cauuse and effect relationship: when one thing occurs or changes it always provides the same result

Implies that people are conscious of their personal beliefs and that they influence the way they act

Emphasise the use of qualitative data

Argues that sociology should not be associated with science and therefore use non-scientific methods

Feminists use these methods because they believe that men dominate science and we should instead look to understand women and their personal struggles in a patriarchal society

Action theories also apply interpritist methodologies

The researcher attempts to gain an in-depth understanding of how people see and understand the world by putting themselves in the position of the people they are studying

Research methods include: uncontrolled field experiments, open-ended questionnaires, unstructured interviews overt and covert participant and non-participant observation, personal accounts, using personal documents such as diaries and letters

The sociologists perspective e.g. Marxist, feminist

Society's values, e.g. the increase of feminism in the 1960's led to further research on gender inequality

Funding bodies. Sociologists often need to cover the costs of their own study. Funding bodies, such as the ESRC can provide economic support. As the funding body is paying for the research they may state what they want to be studied.

1. Hypothesis or aims

2. Choice of method

4. Pilot study

3. Operationalising concepts

5. Data collection

6. Publish findings

Positivists prefer a hypothesis because it's more scientific, and it can be proved or disproved

Interpritivists prefer to outline their aims because it is broarder and allows the research to be led by the participants

A draft version of the research carried out on a small sample

Concepts within the sociologists hypothesis/aim are broken down to determine how they will be measured (operationalised)

The research is carried out in full

The sociologist interprets and analyses the data to come to their own conclusions. A report will be written detailing their research process and conclusions

Practical Factors

Trustworthy Results

Ethical Factors

Theoretical Issues

Time

Funding

How easily the researcher can access the group they want to study

The availability of existing data

The carrer interests and needs for the researchers to meet deadlines and publish findings

Whether the researcher has the personal skills and characteristics needed

The availability of existing data

Generalisability: whether the method enables the results to be generalised to smaller groups

Validity: if the results present a true, authentic depiction of real life

Reliability: if the results can be reproduced to check

Avoid any harmful consequences on the researcher or those who are being studied

Avoid deception (not being honest about the intentions of the study)

Ensure that they gain freely given informed consent of those taking part

Respect the privacy, interests and anonymity of those taking part

A Functionalist, Marxist, or Feminist approach affects the choice of topic

Whether a positivist or interpritivist approach is attempted affects the choice o research method

Action theories

Subjectivity

Objectivity

Value Free

Value Relevance

Value Laden

Value Committed

When you make a judgement based on your own personal bias

Sociologists are part of the society they study and are therefore involved in their own values and beliefs

Often associated with interpritivists and feminists who believe that it is important to have interaction and personal involvement with the people they are studying

Associated with scientific disciplines, positivism and quantitative methods

Means the researcher has removed all personal bias from their research

Championed by positivists who believe that sociology should be entirely value free

No personal opinions or bias should enter sociological research . Sociology should just be observable facts, like in the natural sciences

Positivists, such as Emile Durkheim, believed that science was the science of society and therefore needed to follow scientific principles in order to gain credibility. It was the job of sociology to identify social problems and cure social ills with scientific research

He believed that his study of suicide was value free because he found trends within official statistics that were gathered in a scientific way

Max Weber didn't believe that sociology should be completely value free, and insted discussed the importance of value relevance

He argued that sociologists will use their subjective feelings to identify a research topic and concepts they feel relevant, but carry out their research objectively

Data collection and hypothesis testing should remain as objective as possible

Choice of topic area and interpretation of findings would be subjective

Means the researcher is weighed down by their values

Reasons for being value laden

Paymasters often have an agenda and project their values onto the research

Alvin Gouldner argued that research is often done for career progression and the sociologist will pick a tpic that will get them noticed in the community

Ken Plummer argues that our personal beliefs can never be removed from our conscience. We are often drawn to a topic because we have a desire to explore something that interests us

Plummer argues this was crucial to his research as he reearched his own sexuality through the development of "queer theory"

Howard Beckett argued that all sociologists should be value committed

Sociologists would use their insight and positions of power to give a voice to the deprived and in doing so we can bring about social change.

Features of The "Modernist" Era

Features of The "Post Modernist" Era

The Nation State

Capitalism

The Growth of Science and Rationalisation

Each country developed a political unit that had it's own sovreignity

Within each boundary, the population would usually share a similar language and culture

The economic state of the modernist era

It is the job of the state to regulate the capitalist system, however it's nature is to bring inequality to society

Science overtakes religion as the dominant belief system

Individualism means that even though society is still divided y class, age etc, individuals have more dreedom

Postmodernists argue that society has changed since the Modernist era due to globalisation

Decline of the nation state: They argue that all countries are now connected and therefore the seperate nation states are no longer significant in the way they used to be.Each nation state no longer has total autonomy as political organisation such as the United Nations and The European Union Exist

"The Death of the Social": Jean Baudrillard aregues that some individual's only interaction with the outside world is through media and this shapes the way we think of the world

As a result, the traditional need for a sense of belonging to a community has become redunant

Positivism

Induction

The Hypothetico Deductive Model

Interpritivism

Post modernists

August Compte developed the theoretical perspective of positivism with regards to social research

Their belief was that society could be explained with scientific principles based on objectivity, reliability and generalisation, which can be obtained wwith quantitative data

Positivists believe that one can acquire cause and effect relationships- when one thing occurs or changes it always provides the same result

Emile Durkheim was particularly influenced by Compte and applied it to his study on suicide

He used induction, which is a process where a researcher gathers a large sample of statistics, with the aim of finding trends that illustrate the impact of "social facts" upon society

Durkheim used official statistics and the Hypothetico Deductive Model in his research

This is when a researcher starts with a hypothesis they wish to prove correct

Interpritivists believe that the study of human nature cannot be scientific as our nature is completely unreliable and our actions can have a varety of complex meanings

Interpritivists follow the process of Verstehen: in order to get a valid understanding of the experiences of an individual, the researcher must try to understand them through abandoning the principles of objectivity and putting themsselves in the place of the other

Interpritivists are critical of science as a discipline. They believe that science lacks vaidity and therefore sociology should distance itself from the discipline

Would agree with interpritivists that sociology is not a science

Thsi is because science is meta-narrative (a big stoy that tries to generalise eeryone into a catch-all theory)

Jean-Francois Lyotard believes that any belief system that attemps to generalise is irrelevant in today's fragmented post modernist society as there is no accepted monopoly of truth

Karl Popper believes that social science could be scientifiic if it makes precise preductions using he hypothetic deductive model. He disagreed with positivist research as he believed that "Verification" was irrelevant to science due to the "fallacy of indunction".

Falsification: Popper argued that a scientist will never set out to prove their theory correct, but rather set out to prove themselves incorrect

According to Popper, the longer a theory stands without being disproved the more accurate it is

Feminist Perspective

Marxist Perspective

Functionalist Perspective

The New Rights Perspective

See society as based on conflict and patriarchy where men benefit from women's expense

The state perpetuates female subordination through social policy

For example, the state bases it's policies on the nuclear family, so it offers benefits to married couples

This forces women into often exploitative family structures and segregated conjugal roles

They see society as divided by conflict of interest in which the ruling capitalist class exploits the labour of the working class

The state represents the ruling class and it's social policies serve the interests of capitalism. They also use ideological law-making and selective law enforcement to further oppress the proletariat

They argue that social policy offers create a "caring face" of capitalism. This means that policies fool the poor into thinking that the state cares about them when in actual fact policie offer a distraction from the exploitation that exists in society

For example, the introduction of the minimum wage pretends that capitalists care about the poor

This is a way of preventing revolution when class conflict threatens capitalism

Functionalists see society as being based on vaue consensus which is free from conflict

Durkheim believed that through scientific research we could discover both the problems and solutions to society's social ills

Piecemeal social engineering

Therefore sociology's role is to provide the state with objective scientific information that they can use to base their social policies on

The state introduces policies that serves society as a whole and helps society run more smoothly and efficiently

However, Functionists take a more cautious approach, looking at one issue at a time, called piecemeal social engineering

They believe tht the state should have minimal involvement in society. They are opposed to state involvement in the family, income support, education and healthcare

They feel that this takes away people's choices and their feeling of personal responsibility

Charles Murray argues that the welfare state gives "perverse incentives" that weaken self-reliance and encourages a dependency culture

They want sociologists to come up with alternative policies to the existing ones that restore the responsibility that the welfare state has taken away from individuals

They want to take responsibility for their own and their family's welfare rather than leaving it to the state