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Developmental semester 1

Laura Louise English 5.0Average rating 5.0 out of 5 (1 rating) 171 cards

Developmental semester 1

Cards in this deck (171)

  1. 1Ontogenetic developmentThe development of an individual over their lifetime
  2. 2Microgenetic developmentchanges that occur over days/weeks
  3. 3phylogeneitc developmentchanges over evolutionary time (thousands of years)
  4. 4'infancy' refers to ages...0-2 years
  5. 5'preschool' refers to ages...2-4 years
  6. 6PlasticityPlato believed children are born with innate knowledge.
    Aristotle believed all knowledge came from experience.
    Locke proposed that children are blank slates, nurture of parents and society shapes them.
  7. 7Microgenetic studieschanges are examined as they occur. This involves individual children being tested intensely repeatedly over a short period of time.
  8. 8Piaget's beliefs-that children are constantly adapting to their environment and this leads them through several stages of development.
    -Children are active learners who make hypotheses and test them like scientists.
    -Children are intrinsically motivated to learn.
  9. 9Schemascognitive frameworks or sets of rules that enable us to organise our knowledge and interpret information. They develop through experience and become more complex.
    They change through the processes of assimilation and accommodation.
  10. 10Assimilationthe integration of new input into existing schemas, leading to more consolidated knowledge.
  11. 11Accomodationthe adjustment of schemas to new input, leading to growing and changing knowledge.
  12. 12Schemas in language developmentchildren learn that adding 'ed' to a word makes it past tense. This is assimilation, integrating new vocab into knowledge.
    they may add 'ed' to 'eat' and the adult will correct them to 'ate'. This would cause disequilibrium. Child would change their schema to accommodate for this (accommodation)
  13. 13piaget's 4 stages of cognitive developmentpiaget believed that there were different levels of cognitive understanding that take child from sensory-motor functions in infancy to abstract thought found in adolescence.
    Sensorimotor , pre-operational, concrete operational, formal operational.
  14. 14Sensorimotor stage0-2 years.
    -explore environment
    -dependence on presence of objects reduces- begin to develop mental representations
    -object permanence
    -self-awareness
  15. 15object permanence'out of sight out of mind'
    children learn that when things are hidden they do not cease to exist.
  16. 16mental representationsthe ability to form mental representations of objects is the building blocks of pretend play and memory
    deferred imitation- repetition of other people's behaviour
  17. 17Pre-operational stage2-7 years.
    -develop symbolic thinking (an object can represent something else or an idea (banana phone))
    -egocentric
    -conservation of number mastered
    -reduction in animism
  18. 18Pre-conceptual substage2-4 years.
    ego centrism occurs.
    conquered mental representation
    reduction in animism.
  19. 19intuitive through sub-stage4-7 years.
    develop symbolic thought
    are able to systematically order and classify items but cannot yet pass conservation tasks.
  20. 20concrete operational7-12 years.
    logical mental operations are possible with visual aids.
    conservation of mass/length/volume/number is mastered
    metacognition develops
    understand cause-effect relations
  21. 21Reversibiliysince only the appearance of items has changed, this change can be undone. when objects are transformed the number/mass remains constant.
  22. 22Formal operational stage12+ years.
    abstract reasoning develops enabling children to speculate and reason.
    Children begin to formulate and test their hypotheses in the world.
  23. 23Limitations of Piaget-not always accurate. some children master conservation or abstract thinking at an early age
    -many of his tasks place a lot of demands on children's memory and are not child-friendly.
    -infants may be able to form mental representations
    -children can pass egocentrism tasks earlier when materials change.
    -Conservation can be achieved earlier when the task is simplified
  24. 24Meltzoff & Moore6 week old infants could repeat tongue protrusion after 24hr delay.
    (mental representations)
  25. 25Hughes60% of 3 yr olds can hide a doll so a policeman can't see it
    (against egocentrism)
  26. 26McGarringle & Donaldsonfound that when a 'naughty teddy' got muddled and changed materials, 4 year olds answered better to 'is this is the same weight/height as before?'
  27. 27Rouge Test(Self awareness)
    if a red dot is drawn on a child's forehead and they look in a mirror, do they try and touch the red dot on their own face or do they interact with the person in the mirror like they are someone else?
  28. 28Bower 1972Young children show 'surprise' when an object disappears from behind a screen.
  29. 29VygotskyVygotsky's theory has had a big impact on developmental psychology and education by placing the child's social world at the forefront.
    He thought that cognitive development will be different depending on the culture and social world children grow up in
  30. 30Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of development- infant elementary functions-attention
    -sensation
    -perception
    -memory
    believed infants are born with these functions- it is through interaction with other people and the environment and language that they become higher mental functions
  31. 31Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of development- importance of socio-culturehe thought that how we think is a function of the social and cultural world we grow up in. Children's cognitive skills will be developed to handle the tasks and problems for their surroundings.
  32. 32Vygotsky's sociocultural theory of development- inner speech and instructioninner speech plays a crucial role in promoting cognitive development.
    Cognitive development occurs in situations where a child's problem solving is guided by an adult. (instruction)
  33. 33What is socioculture?the term brings together how both society and the social world of a child (parents, family, community, government) AND the culture in the child's world (customs, beliefs, intellectual/scientific achievements) at that time may impact development
  34. 34How does impact of socio-culture affect play?it determines the type of practical activity we engage in and the things we learn. Children often imitate in play, and this will reflect their environment.
  35. 35Morelli et al (play)observed toddlers in american communities, The Efe people, and an indigenous Mayan group. One big difference between the groups was that the Efe and San Pedro children imitated adult work in their play more than american children.
  36. 36How does impact of socio-culture affect problem solving?since it determines the type of practical activity we engage in, it therefore influences how familiar we are with thinking and reasoning about certain problems or topics.
  37. 37Cole et al (1971) (problem solving)studied the Kpelle people of Liberia. They found that they are not as good as US participants at estimating length, but are better at estimating quantities of rice, which is a daily activity for them.
  38. 38Luria (1979) (problem solving)studied two groups of farmers in Uzbekistan. One group were traditional farmers in villages, and the other were in large communities with education. They were shown four pictures and asked to pick the 3 that wen't together.(saw, wood, spade, axe) the farmers from 2nd group selected the three tools to go together. The other farmers made their decision based on practical situations and put the saw, the wood and the axe in a 'wood' group.
  39. 39How does impact of socio-culture affect language?Socioculture determines the language we speak, and subtle differences in language can lead to noticeable differences in cognition.
  40. 40Gordon (2004) (language)in two amazonian languages there are no number words for quantities larger than 5. As a result individuals from this culture can only solve problems easily when working with numbers less than 5.
  41. 41Zuber et al (2009) (language)in english. when expressing numbers between 21 and 99 the decade is said first and then the units. In german it is the opposite way round, 47 is 'seven-forty'. Because of this, german children often have problems learning to convert spoken numbers to written.
  42. 42Self speech and inner speechchildren's behaviour is first controlled by adults' instructions.
    then in private speech said out loud (self-speech)
    Then these monologues become internalised at around 7 to become inner speech (which becomes thought)
  43. 43Evidence for importance of self & inner speech+children do engage in more self-speech if a task is challenging (making mistakes or are confused) (Berk)
    +children who use speech when facing challenging tasks are more attentive and perform better on cognitive tasks than quiet children. (Behrend)
  44. 44Zone of proximal developmentchildren learn well through interacting with children more experienced than they are.
    The zone refers to the increase in development that a child can reach through assistance by a more competent person compared to development without help.
  45. 45ScaffoldingBruner-
    how children's learning is enhanced when more competent people provide a framework that supports children's thinking at a higher level than they could manage alone. e.g. modelling in action, suggesting a strategy, reconstructing questions to make them more manageable.
  46. 46Wood et al's stages of scaffolding1) recruitment- engage child's interest
    2) reduction of degrees of freedom- reduce number of acts needed to arrive at solution
    3) direction of maintenance- maintain a child's motivation
    4) marking critical features- highlight important features to child.
    5) demonstration- model solution or parts of task for imitation
  47. 47evidence scaffolding is helpful+parents who provide a supportive learning environment have children who generate more private speech and therefore more successful. (Behrend)
    +Parental scaffolding while children did a puzzle predicted preschoolers academic performance one year later because it supported development of cognitive skills.
  48. 48applications of scaffolding in education-structured learning activities
    -helpful hints tailored to child's ability
    -monitoring the learners progress and gradually turning over the activity to learner.
    -collaborative learning exercises.
    -computers as 'partners'
  49. 49The marshmallow taskWalter Mischel found children's ability to delay gratification (wait for second marshmallow) predicted greater success in later life.
    children's performance on the task before they started school predicted later academic outcomes years later.
  50. 50role of socio-economic status in marshmallow taskfor children from lower socioeconomic households there may be less certainty so it makes more sense to take risks. Having less money and resources may lead to people going for short-term over long-term rewards.
  51. 51role of culture in marshmallow tasksome children in some cultures learn early on from their parents to control their needs and negative emotions. These parenting practices may help children develop self-control.
  52. 52similarities between piaget and vygotsky-piaget and vygotsky agreed that children are active learners and believed that interaction with the world is important for development.
    - they were both constructivists (children construct their understanding of the world through experience and interaction)
  53. 53differences between piaget and vygotsky-for piaget it was all about the child in their own efforts to understand. whereas for vygotsky, cognitive development takes place within their social world and between child and other people.
  54. 54does collaborative learning help?motivation is enhanced when working with others.
    cooperative learning means child has to explain their ideas and resolve conflicts- requiring them to examine their own ideas.
    collaborative learning increases self-speech.
  55. 55Freund (collaborative learning)5 year olds had to help puppet furnish it's house. they then worked on similar task either: alone with corrective feedback from experimenter, or with their mother through guided learning.. then completed final complex furniture task.
    children who worked with mothers performed better on final task
  56. 56NativismThe view that many skills or abilities are 'native or hard wired into the brain at birth, the result of genetic inheritance. Infants are born with hard wired knowledge because it confers a survival advantage.
  57. 57EmpiricismThe view that humans are not born with built-in knowledge or mental content, and that all knowledge and content results from learning and experience.
  58. 58HeritabilityHow much of the variation in a particular trait in a particular population, is the result of genetic variation among individuals
  59. 59EnvironmentalityHow much variation in the train results from environmental factors
  60. 60Phenotypethe interaction of genetic and environmental influences to create a person's physical appearance and behaviour.
  61. 61Precocial speciesin these species the young are physically mobile from birth or hatching
  62. 62Altricial speciesIn these species, the young are more helpless and cannot care for themselves. They are dependent on their parents for safety and food.
  63. 63Nativism: face preferencevery young infants prefer to look at faces compared to non-faces.
    infants are known to look around the edge of an object more. faces contain more information around the periphery so infants may look longer at faces because there is lots to look at.
    or it might be innate- develop in the first few weeks of life when interacting with caregivers.
  64. 64Reid et al (face preference)39 expectant mums and fetus in the 28-40th weeks of pregnancy. 3-point lights shone into uterus and moved for fetuses to follow. 4d scans to assess head turns. fetuses turned their haid more towards face-like triangles than inverted.
  65. 65Variations in genesGenes consist of sequence of letters, A,G,C&T. most of the sequence is the same for all humans, but there are a small number that can change that make us unique. These variable letters are 'variations'.
  66. 66Family resemblanceone way researchers can tease apart the influences of genetics on traits is by looking at genetic relatedness or family resemblance.
    researchers can compare individuals who are closely related e.g. twins to strangers.
  67. 67Monozygotic twins100% genetic relationship.
    identical
  68. 68Dizygotic50% genetic relationship
    non-identical
  69. 69IQ correlation of identical twins vs. siblings!= perfect.
    raised together: 0.87
    raised apart: 0.78
    siblings (raised together)- 0.55
  70. 70Schiff et al (adoption)32 children adopted below 6 months of age by upper-middle class families with IQs of 110. each had a sibling that had remained in their biological parents home.
    IQ measured between 6 & 14. Mean IQs of adopted children were 109.
    mean IQs of the siblings was 95.
  71. 71Lee et al (educational achievement)1.1 million people and 1,271 independent DNA variations implicated in educational achievement (known as SNPS- single nucleotide polymorphisms)
    these explained 11% of the variation in educational achievement suggesting a big role
  72. 72Educational achievement: nutureThe environment shapes educational achievement as it will shape the learning experiences of children through home activities, resources and school quality.
  73. 73How do we measure poverty?poverty is hard to measure as it varies across countries.
    in poor & developing countries poverty is used to refer to limited access to food and water.
    In developed counties it refers to households that earn 60% or less than the median income.
  74. 74Mani et al (poverty)indian sugarcane farmers were studied over the planting cycle.
    same farmers showed diminished cognitive performance before harvest, when poor, as compared to after harvest, when rich.
    appears that poverty itself reduces cognitive capacity.
  75. 75poverty and educational achievementthe longer children live in poverty the poorer their educational attainment will be.
    this perpetuates the cycle of inequality that can persist over generations.
    Research has suggested poverty in early development can have greater impact.
    This has led some governments to develop initiatives to give poorer families better educational resources.
  76. 76Sure start (from 1998)provided play sessions for children, family support, parenting advice, speech and language therapy, nutrition advice.
    improved parent-infant interactions.
    applied gentle, consistent consequences for bad behaviour.
    A lot of evidence that this scheme was successful in improving child outcomes.
  77. 77Antisocial behaviourchildren who experience abuse and maltreatment are at risk of developing conduct disorder, antisocial personality problems. & becoming offenders. but there are large differences in children in their response to maltreatment (most don't become criminals)
  78. 78MAOA (warrior gene)X-linked MAOA gene produces a protein MAOA which breaks down excess neurotransmitters.
    If neurotransmitters build up in excess, they lead to an increased propensity towards aggression. low activity of MAOA is associated with increased aggression.
  79. 79Caspi et al (MAOA)Caspi et al (MAOA)
  80. 80Genotype environment theoryThis theory states that your genotype and your parent's genotype influences which environments you encounter and types of experiences you have. genes drive experience/your genetic makeup determines how you organise your world. three types of gene-environment effects that vary in influence over development: passive, evocative & active.
  81. 81Passive (gene-environment effect)biological parents provide both the genes and environment for the child. Passive effects decrease with age.
  82. 82Evocative (gene-environment effect)Temperamental characteristics of the child evoke responses from other. Evocative effects remain constant with age.
  83. 83Active (gene-environment effect)children seek out environments consistent with their genotypes. active effects increase with age.
  84. 84Example of passive effectParents who read well and enjoy reading are likely to provide their children with books, thus the children are more likely to be skilled readers. both for genetic and environmental reasons
  85. 85Example of evocative effectco-operative, attentive preschoolers will receive more pleasant and instructional interactions from the adults around them than preschoolers who are disruptive
  86. 86Scarr & Weinberg (genotype environment theory)they found the IQs of adopted siblings (living together but biologically unrelated) in early childhood were moderately correlated.(0.39)
    However, when this was measured in late adolescence it was 0
  87. 87Evaluation of genotype environment theory+The model is comprehensive and plausible. It examines how both genetic and environmental influences interact to produce traits and behaviour.
    +it also considers developmental effects. genetic and environmental effects are not seen as constant but as dynamic factors whose effects may vary over time
  88. 88Assertionan attempt to exert influence over the environment. This includes emphasis on independence, task orientation and competition.
  89. 89Affiliationan attempt to make connections with others. This included emphasis on interpersonal sensitivity, supportiveness and affection.
  90. 90Collaborationblends together assertion and affiliation. Associated with gender role flexibility and is more common in females than males.
  91. 91General points about gender developmentmany researchers reject the dichotomous view of gender and point out that the similarities between men and women far exceed the differences.
    with social changes in opportunity structures and constraining institutional arrangements, gender differences have declined over time.
    finding gender differences can sometimes contribute to stereotyping.
  92. 92What are the three stages of gender development?Gender identity
    Gender stability
    Gender constancy
  93. 93Gender identity stage2-3 years.
    children begin to label themselves and others as a boy or girl based on external appearance.
    E.g. "i am a girl because i have long hair"
    They do not understand gender is fixed over time and situation.
  94. 94Gender stability stage4-5 years.
    children now recognise that gender remains constant over time. that is, it will be the same from being a baby till adulthood.
    However, it is still based on appearance.
  95. 95Gender constancy stage6-7 years.
    child now possesses the added knowledge that gender is invariant despite changes in appearance, dress or activity.
    e.g. woman who has short hair and is a builder is still a builder.
    once children reach this stage they begin to seek out same sex playmates and gender stereotyped behaviours.
  96. 96Munroe et al (gender development stages)the three stage transition of gender development has been found cross-culturally and so is thought to be universal.
    Munroe found it in the US, Belize, kenya, nepal and the pacific islands.
  97. 97Evolutionary theoryproposes that certain traits facilitate survival and transmission of genes and so these traits are favoured over generations.
    gender differences evolved to increase the chances that males and females would mate and protect their offspring
  98. 98Evolutionary theory on gendersbecause men couldn't give birth or breastfeed, they sought multiple partners (maximise paternity) who were young (fertile) and invested less resources in their children who may not be their own. Women had to not only carry the fetus but also care for their children. Therefore invested in parenting, and preferred fewer partners and favoured those who would be long-term providers.
  99. 99Geary (evolutionary theory)proposed that play fighting may be an evolved tendency to practice the competencies that were associated with male-to-male competition during human evolution. In many animals, aggression helps access to females and food.
  100. 100Against evolutionary account-It cant account for similarities or differences in general behaviour.
    -it's more focused on behaviours seemingly related to mating.
    -Does not specify any mechanisms to explain developmental changes.
    -lacks scientific rigor, accounts cannot be properly tested.
  101. 101Hormone accounts gender developmentfocused on the role of androgens.
    androgens are hormones including testosterone that affect physical development at higher level in men..
    Fluctuations in androgens can influence behaviour, e.g associated with increase in aggressive behaviour
  102. 102Hormone accounts: evidenceevidence can be found by looking at transgender children. Proponents of biological accounts of gender have used this as evidence gender is biological.
    Trans children usually prefer to play and wear clothes in a way that matches their idea of their gender. Discrepant gender identity usually appears very early on in development, and is difficult to alter with socialisation attempts.
  103. 103Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS)occurs in genetic males where androgen receptors malfunction leading to external female genitalia
  104. 104Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)this is where male genitalia are developed in girls. girls with CAH are also more likely to choose physically active play and play fighting.
  105. 105against hormone accountsthe causal link between hormones and behaviour has not been established. because trans children physically dress differently so they are likely to also treat them differently (social factor).
    Lack of relationship between prenatal hormones and gender behaviour for boys raises further questions about whether hormonal factors have much influence
  106. 106Cognitive development theorychildren develop concepts of gender from those around them through observation, inference and practice.
    at a young age children do not realise gender remains stable.
    once they achieve gender constancy they positively value their gender identity and seek to behave only in ways that are congruent with it.
  107. 107Kohlbergthought that when children understand gender constancy it is similar to them passing conservation tasks. just as they realise that the underlying properties of objects don' t change when their appearance does, this is the same for gender.
  108. 108Ruble et al (cognitive development)children who were high or low gender constancy watched two advertisements. one with same sex child playing with gender neutral toy. one with opposite sex child playing with gender neutral toy.
    low gender constancy children played with the toys from both ads. high gender constancy children much less likely to play with toy from opp sex child.
  109. 109against cognitive development theorylong before children have attained gender constancy they prefer to play with toys traditionally associated with their gender and to model their behaviour after same-sex models.
    gender difference in colour preferences are present very early on by 3 years of age.
  110. 110Thompson (cognitive development)even 2 year olds can sort pictures of stereotypical 'girls' and 'boys' toys, clothing and appliances in terms of their typical gender relatedness.
    therefore children's ability to classify their own and other's sex may be all that is necessary for gender stereotyping to occur.
  111. 111Gender schema theorygender typed behaviour begins as soon as children can label others and their own gender.
    children begin to develop gender schemas- mental representations incorporating everything they know about gender. Once developed, children are expected to behave in ways consistent with it.
  112. 112gender schema ages of development2 years- children identify themselves as male or female
    3-5 years- children begin learning about gender-related characteristics
    5-7 years- gender characteristics are viewed in a rigid and inflexible- view cross-gender play negatively.
    7-12- gender schemas more flexible
    12+ gender schemas become more rigid again.
  113. 113gender schema evidence--no evidence that infants possess gender schemas.
    -girls often show greater flexibility by saying that a toy or activity is for both sexes.
    - children often misremember toys that a child is playing with if the toy is not gender typical
  114. 114Bauer (gender schema)toddlers shown 6 activities:
    -two stereotypically male
    -two stereotypically female
    -children were then instructed to imitate each activity immediately or two weeks later
    -boys showed greater imitation of male activities. girls showed no difference
  115. 115Social cognitive theorythis account proposes three interacting causal factors that determine gender development.
    Personal: cognitive, motivational and biological processes
    Behavioural: engaging in gendered behaviours
    Environmental: social influences encountered in every day life
  116. 116Bussey and Bandura- gendered behaviour develops in three main ways:tuition- when children are directly taught gendered behaviours.
    enactive experience- when children learn to guide their own behaviour by considering reactions from others.
    observational- seeing other behave and consequences of their behaviour
  117. 117Tuitionboys are more likely than girls to take out the bins, mow the lawn, and help wash the car. girls are more likely to care for younger siblings.
    gender assignment of chores implies a natural division of labour and influences interests.
  118. 118Enactive experiencegender schemas may also be developed through conditioning- gender appropriate behaviours are rewarded by others.
    fathers are more likely to praise children when they play with a gender 'appropriate' toy.
    This was stronger for boys than girls.
  119. 119Observational learninggender related behaviours may be learnt through observing others including parents and peers. a positive correlation has been found between parents gender schemas and their child's gender attitudes.
  120. 120mathematical thinkingstereotypes about female inferiority in mathematics are prominent among children.
    fathers estimated their sons mathematical IQ at 110 on average and their daughters at 98. this debate is important as women make up just 19% of the STEM workforce. Mathematical differences tend to only emerge in secondary school.
  121. 121mathematical thinking- why are these small differences only found in later development?girls often show higher maths anxiety and less confidence in their ability than boys despite having a similar level of interest.
    it could be down to teacher perceptions or the fact that girls tend to use procedural strategies whereas boys use 'bolder, novel' strategies
  122. 122Spatial skillsspatial skills involve comparing, manipulating and transforming mental pictures. They involve three primary components- mental rotation, spatial perception and spatial visualisation.
    There are reliable differences in spatial skills favouring males.
  123. 123why might there be a gender difference in spatial skills?boys often get more experience interacting in spatially complex environments and receive more encouragement for outdoor play.
    studies have shown that participating in spatial activities such as ball playing are positively related to spatial skills.
  124. 124Aggressionobservational studies have found physical aggression against one's peers emerges around the time of the child's 1st birthday.
    some gender differences emerge during these early years- one study showed 5% male toddlers were frequently aggressive compared to 1% female toddlers.
  125. 125Direct aggressionrefers to verbal and physical acts of aggression
  126. 126Indirect aggressionrefers to relational aggressive acts by manipulating peer relation ships and damaging the target's social position.
    this type is more likely in girls.
  127. 127why might there be gender variations in aggression?females lower physical strength necessitates girl's reliance on indirect means of aggression.
    girls peer groups are often characterised by being smaller but closer than boys, so indirect aggression is particularly harmful.
  128. 128male variability hypothesismen are thought to vary greatly in their abilities while women were assumed to be basically the same in their abilities.
    men are therefore more likely to be both at the top and bottom of the distribution in traits.
    This is a Darwinian theory and was okay for its time. it justified that education was not as valuable for women as they are less likely to achieve like men.
  129. 129evidence for male variability hypothesisthere is some evidence that boys may be more variable than girls in certain abilities, but we cant extrapolate these findings to infer that there is a generalised greater variability.
  130. 130gender similarity hypothesishyde reviewed studies that had analysed evidence for gender differences across 128 domains.
    many studies (30%) report effects close to 0. 48% report small effects.
    SO 78% report small or close to zero effects.
  131. 131conclusion on genderhyde concludes that male and females are alike on most (but not all) psychological variables and therefore girls and boys are more alike than they are difference and that differences are larger within vs between genders
  132. 132emergence of emotionsparents are likely to think they see many emotions in their early on, but often parents read into emotions.
    therefore to make things more objective researchers have developed elaborative systems to identify emotions including coding dozens of facial cues.
  133. 133early positive emotionssmiles are the first positive emotion infants express.
    during the first month, infants smiles are primarily during a specific phase of REM sleep.
    between 3rd and 8th week infants begin to smile in reaction to external stimuli. by the 3rd month, infants express social smiles (at people).
  134. 134smiling and laughing3 month olds are more likely to smile at people than at animated puppets.
    at 7 months smiling is primarily at familiar people which supports bonds and relationships.
    by 1 year infants start to laugh at surprising/funny events.
  135. 135early negative emotionsfirst negative emotion in infants is generalised distress.
    there is a debate about whether infants just experience distress or if they have specific negative emotions (sadness, anger)
    some researchers have been able to distinguish between anger and sadness from pain in 2 month olds by examining facial expressions.
  136. 136Fearthere is little evidence that it is present in early life.
    not until 4 months do infants start to become wary of unfamiliar things.
    other fears are evident at 7 months such as loud noises or sudden movements
    this is adaptive- babies don't have the ability to escape from situations on their own.
  137. 137Separation anxietyemerges at around 8 months of age.
    infants will typically show signs of distress when parent is walking away/leaving them.
    increases from 8-15 months of age and then declines. has been found cross culturally.
  138. 138angerby 1, infants begin to clearly express anger, often toward other people and increases up to 16 months.
    by 2 children gain more control over their environment and become more angry if control is taken away from them. toddlers are quicker to respond with anger at 18 months than 36. this is likely because they are more able to express themselves through language.
  139. 139self consciousby 2 children begin to show range of emotions (guilt, pride, embarrassment)
    some researchers link emergence of these emotions to children developing sense of self.
    they are fostered through children's growing awareness of what others expect of them.
  140. 140guilt vs shameguilt involves remorse and regret about one's actions and a desire to undo the damage. shame is more focused on oneself- feeling exposed and wanting to hide
    there are individual differences in whether children feel guilt or shame. this may be related to parenting styles. shame is more likely if parents emphasise child is bad, guilt is more likely if parents emphasise 'badness of behaviour' and effect on others'
  141. 141recognition of emotionsinfants are able to recognise positive and negative emotions early on. at 3 months they can distinguish between happy, surprised & angry.
    at 7 months, fear, sadness & interest
  142. 142For: emotions are innatedarwin argued that facial expressions for basic emotions are innate to the species, universal and found from birth.
  143. 143discrete emotions theorydarwin developed this idea to argue that each emotion is innately packaged with a specific set of physiological, bodily and facial expressions so they can be differentiated very early on in life
  144. 144Against: emotions are innateresearchers argue that emotions are not distinct from one another at the beginning of life and the environment plays an important role in the expression of emotions.
  145. 145Sroufe - three basic affect systems (against theory of innate emotions)!) joy/pleasure
    2) anger/frustration
    3) wariness/fear
    these systems undergo developmental changes from primitive to more advanced during the first few years of life.
  146. 146functionalist approach (against theory of innate emotions)advocates a role for the environment
    -a basic function of emotions is to promote action towards achieving a goal in a given context
    -emotional reactions are affected by social goals- including other people involved, values learned.
    therefore some emotions need interaction to develop
  147. 147emotion regulationself regulation of emotion can be defined as the set of processes whereby people seek to redirect or dampen their feelings of emotion. involves initiating, inhibiting or modulating:
    1) physiological factors (heart & breathing rate)
    2) subjective feelings
    3) cognitions and perceptions
    4) expressive behaviour
  148. 148emotion regulation and marshmallow taskchildren who did better on this task often had better self-regulation strategies, such as singing, talking, trying to sleep or making up games to play
  149. 149developmental stages of emotion regulation1) the transition from caregiver to self-regulation
    2) the use of cognitive strategies and problem solving to control negative emotions
    3) the selection of appropriate strategies
  150. 150transition from caregiver to self regulationwhen infants are distressed, parents help to regulate their emotions by soothing or distracting them.
    Parents then begin to use vocalisation to calm children.
    from 6 months, infants start to show signs of rudimentary self-regulation.
    from 6 months on, children develop and improve on their ability to distract themselves when distressed.
  151. 151use of cognitive strategiesyounger children use behavioural emotion regulation strategies, older children use cognitive strategies & problem solving.
    finding themselves in an unpleasant situation they may rethink their goals so they can adapt to that situation
  152. 152selection of appropriate strategiesover time, children improve their ability to select cognitive or behavioural strategies appropriate to situation.
    this is thought to be due to developments in planning and problem solving across middle childhood and adolescence
  153. 153tempermentdescribes a persons emotional and attentional reactivity and self- regulation that shows consistency across situations and stability over time
  154. 154six aspects of temperament-fearful distress/inhibition
    -irritable distress
    -attention span/persistence
    -activity level
    -positive affect/approach
    -Rhythmicity
  155. 155temperament- nature nurturetemperament is thought to be hereditary. identical twins have more similar temperaments than non-identical
    however, environment stressors such as negative parenting, stress and instability have been linked to emotion regulation
  156. 156physiological measures of temperamentcortisol is a hormone released in response to stress. the amount released in a situation has been linked to temperament differences.
    children high in negative emotionality and with poorer emotion regulation show larger increases in cortisol.
  157. 157lab measures of temperamentdata likely to be objective and less biased. childrens behaviour is only observed in a limited set of circumstances and could reflect their mood on the day.
  158. 158social referencingat around 7-12 months of age, infants begin to process and interpret social cues around them- social referencing.
    they can process facial expressions or vocal cues and use them to decide how to deal with new situations.
  159. 159parents can socialise emotion development in three main ways1) their own expression of emotions with their child and other people
    2) their reactions to their childs expression of emotion
    3) discussions they have with their children about emotion and emotion-regulation
  160. 160parents expression of emotionparents expressions provides children with model of when and how to express emotion. parents who do not tend to express emotions- children may think emotions should be avoided, homes where positive emotions are expressed- children express positive emotions more themselves
  161. 161parents reactions to emotionsparents who dismiss or criticise children's expressions of sadness or anxiety tend to have children who are less emotionally competent.
    in contrast, parents who are supportive tend to have better adjusted children who are socially competent
  162. 162cultural differences in emotion11 month old US children reacted more strongly to unfamiliar stimuli than chinese children.
    us children showed more anger and aggression when asked what they would do in hypothetical situation than japanese children
  163. 163visual paired comparison taskif infants can distinguish between familiar stimuli and unfamiliar stimuli- if they can remember one- then they should look at each a different amount. this method relies on habituation ( a decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations)
  164. 164Fagan testa test of how infants process information.
    uses the amount of time children spend looking at a new object to estimate cognitive capacity.
    quicker habituation reflects more efficient information processing
  165. 165vision newborns - 2 monthsto newborns stuff looks dim & fuzzy- can see light, shapes and movement. can't yet fixate.
    1-2 mnths- can fixate on objects. can distinguish high-contrast colours.
  166. 166vision 4 months - 1 year4- depth perception and improved colour vision
    8- visual range increases- can recognise people across room
    1 yr- vision similar to adult levels
  167. 167seeing facesfr,om birth, infants showed a small but consistent preference for face-like configuration.
    even at a day old, new borns are capable of recognising individual faces
  168. 168perceptual narrowinginfants visual perception becomes increasingly tailored to regular features of the environment. very general abilities are more finely tuned following experience
  169. 169other race effecttendency to more easily recognise faces of the race one is most familiar with.
    infants are initially able to discriminate pretty well between faces they see, but gradually lose ability to discriminate between faces they dont see often
  170. 170experience & perceptual narrowing6 month old children able to discriminate same AND other race faces
    they were given 70 minutes of picture book exposure over 3 months.
    picture books either showed chinese or caucasian faces. those shown chinese retained ability to recognise chinese and lots ability to recognise caucasian
  171. 171—

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Flashcards on Developmental semester 1, created by Laura Louise on 29/01/2019.
Created by
Laura Louise · Jan 2019
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Jan 30, 2019
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