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Biology Topic 7 Flashcards

J000D97 Biology A2 level English 110 cards

Cards in this deck (110)

  1. 1List the 5 things that allow us to moveMuscles
    Tendons
    Ligaments
    Cartilage
    Sketeton
  2. 2Muscles work as...Antagonistic pairs
  3. 3A muscle which contracts to cause extension of a joint is called a...Extensor
  4. 4Tendons join...Muscle to bone
  5. 5Properties of tendonsWhite fibrous tissue
    Bundles of collagen fibres
    Strong but relatively inelastic
  6. 6Ligaments attach...Bone to bone
  7. 7Properties of ligamentsYellow strong but elastic tissue.
  8. 8Function of cartilageA shock absorber which absorbs synovial fluid.
  9. 9Properties of cartilageHard, flexible tissue made of chondrocytes w/in an org matrix of collagen fibres
    Elastic
    Able to withstand compressive force
  10. 10What is bone made of?Bone cells embedded in a matrix of collagen and Ca salts.
  11. 11What is 1 property of bone?Particularly strong under compression.
  12. 12Why do we have synovial fluid?As a lubricant to reduce friction in joints.
  13. 13When the myosin head binds to the actin what does it form?An actomyosin bridge
  14. 14What causes the mysoin head to detach from the actin?Free ATP binding to the m. head
  15. 15When the sarcolema is depolarised what is released, from where to where?Stored Ca2+ from the sarcoplasmic reticulum into the sarcoplasm.
  16. 16In the sliding filament theory what do calcium ions bind to and what does this cause?It binds to troponin, which changes shape, pulls on tropomyosin on the actin, causing it to move and expose myosin binding sites.
  17. 17Describe aerobic respirationThe splitting of the respiratory substance to release CO2 as a waste product and reuniting of H w/ O2, with the release of large amounts of energy.
  18. 18What is the overall equation for aerobic respiration?C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6H2O + 6CO2 + ATP
  19. 19Where does glycolysis occurr?In the cytoplasm
  20. 20What is the first step of glycolysis and what is it called?Phosphorylation with 2 ATP of glucose to make it more reactive 2GALP.
    Called pump priming
  21. 21What is the net input net output from glycolysis?Input: 1 glucose
    Output: 2ATP, 2NADPH, 2 pyruvate
  22. 22Where does the Krebs cycle occurr?Matrix of mitochondria
  23. 23What is the net output per pyruvate molecule during the links reaction & Krebs cycle?1 NADPH, 1 CO2 - links
    3 NADPH, 2 CO2, 1 ATP, 1 FADH
  24. 24How is ATP produced in the Krebs cycle?Substrate level phosphorylation
  25. 25The inner mitochondrial membrane is ________ to protons.Impermeable
  26. 26How many ATP does each NADH and FADH molecule produce?3 / NADH
    2 / FADH
  27. 27What is the theoretical maximal ATP yield from respiration? Where does each ATP get produced?38
    2 from glycolysis
    2 from Krebs
    2FADH x 2ATP = 4
    10NADH x 3ATP = 30
    (2 from links, 6 from Krebs, 2 from glycolysis)
  28. 28Describe chemiosmosisH's released from H carriers.
    They split into H+ + e-'s.
    e-'s move along ETC in a series of redox reactions and lose energy as they go.
    The energy is used to actively pump H+ ions across mit. inner mem.
    Inter-mem space now has a higher H+ conc than the matrix so an e-chem grad. = set up.
    H+ ions move down their e-chem grad. to the matrix through proton pores on stalked particles.
    The ATPase catalyses ATP synthesis.
  29. 29What happens after chemiosmosis to form water?H+ ions combine with e-'s accepted by the final e- acceptor oxygen, to produce water.
  30. 30What is the net output of anaerboic respiration?2ATP + lactate
  31. 31In aerobic respiration how is NAD re-produced for glycolysis?By the ETC where NADH gives up its H+ and e-'s for chemiosmosis.
  32. 32How is NAD regenerated in anaerobic respiration?The pyruvate from glycolysis accepts H's to form lactate and oxidise the NADH to NAD.
  33. 33What is creatine phosphate and what is is used for?A store of energy in muscle fibres which supplies energy needed for ATP before extra oxygen can be supplied during exercise.
  34. 34Describe and explain the effect of lactateIt forms lactic acid and releases H+ ions lowering the pH.
    This can inhibit enzymes by neutralising negatively charged groups in their active sites so that the substrate may no longer bind.
    It also causes cramps when it builds up causing you to stop or slow down.
  35. 35Why do you breathe heavily after a race?Because oxygen is required to oxidise lactate back to pyruvate.
    This is post-exercise oxygen consumption.
  36. 36Reasons for expected oxygen debt being smaller than EPOCWe need more oxygen for:
    restoring creatine phosphate levels
    re-oxidising myoglobin in muscles
    increased rate of all chemical reactions
    muscles of diaphram and ribs need more due to heavier breathing
    HR = elevated so cardiac muscles need more oxygen.
  37. 37How does creatine phosphate work?It is hydrolysed to release energy used to regenerate ATP from ADP + Pi
  38. 38Av HR for a male is70bpm
  39. 39Define: myogenic property of the heartIt can contract without external nervous stimulation.
  40. 40Which node is described as a pace maker?Sinoatrial node
  41. 41What does the atrioventricular valve do?It redirects the impulse through the Purkyne fibres in the bundle of His after a slight delay.
  42. 42During atriole systole which valves are open and which are shut?AV open
    SL shut
  43. 43During ventricular systole which valves are open and closed?AV shut
    SL open
  44. 44Why is the impulse through the heart delayed just before ventricular systole?To ensure complete atrial systole
  45. 45Valves during diastole...AV open
    SL shut
  46. 46What causes low pressure in the heart chambers during diastole?Elastic recoil
  47. 47What does ECG stand for?Electrocardiograph
  48. 48On an ECG what does each of the P, QRS and T section of the graph represent?P is depolarisation of the atria
    QRS is depolarisation of the ventricles
    T is repolarisation of the ventricles
  49. 49Polarised = ______ Depolarised = ______Polarised is becoming negative
    Depolarised is becoming positive
  50. 50Cardiac output = ... (dm3/min)Stroke volume (dm3) x HR (bpm)
  51. 51Define cardiac outputThe volume of blood pumped out of the heart per minute
  52. 52Define aerobic capacityThe ability to take in, transport and use oxygen.
  53. 53Define stroke volumeThe volume of blood the heart pumps out each beat.
  54. 54Where is the cardiovascular control center?Medulla
  55. 55Is the autonomic nervous syt. involuntary or voluntary?Involuntary
  56. 56What are the 2 parts to the autonomic nervous system and what do they do?Sympathetic - excitatory
    Parasympathetic - inhibatory
  57. 57How are baroreceptors used? And what is it an example of?They are pressure receptors in the carotid arteries which are stretched when BP increases.
    They send nerve impulses to the CVC through parasympathetic nerves causing HR to decrease and vasodilation which decreases the BP.
    NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
  58. 58Describe the role of stretch receptors during exercise?They send nerve impulses from skeletal muscles and the walls of the heart when stimulated during exercise by increased vagus return to the heart and use of muscles.
    CVC then sends more sympathetic nerve impulses to the SAN to increase HR so oxygen is transported more quickly to the muscles.
  59. 59What hormone can cause an anticipatory increase in HR?Adrenaline
  60. 60Describe the effects of adrenaline and from where it is released.Released from adrenal glands above kidneys.
    Has direct affect on SAN increasing HR and causes dilation of arteries supplying skeletal muscles and constriction of those supplying non-essential organs to maximise blood flow to active muscles.
  61. 61Where is the ventilation centre?Medulla oblongata
  62. 62How (briefly) does the VC regulate rate and depth of breathing?Via chemoreceptors in the arteries and stretch receptors in the bronchi.
  63. 63Define: tidal volumeVolume of air entering and leaving the lungs at each natural resting breath.
  64. 64Define: IRVVolume of air taken in over the normal inspired TV when you breathe in as deeply as possible.
  65. 65Define: ERVVolume of air that can be expelled over and above normal expired TV when you force air out of the lungs as hard as possible.
  66. 66Define: vital capacityTV + IRV + ERV
    The volume of air that can be breathed out by the most vigorous possible expiration following the deepest possible inspiration.
  67. 67Define: residual volumeVolume of air left in the lungs after the strongest possible expiration.
  68. 68Inspiratory Capacity, IC = ...TV + IRV
  69. 69Ventilation rate = (dm3/min)TV x freq. of inspiration / minute
  70. 70What is a muscle made up of?Bundles of muscle fibres bonded together with connective tissue.
  71. 71Describe a muscle fibreA single long multinucleate cell surrounded by cell surface mem - the sarcolemma.
  72. 72Describe the sarcoplasmic reticulumA network of internal membranes running through the sarcoplasm which stores and releases Ca for muscle contraction.
  73. 73What is a muscle fibre composed of?Numerous myofibrils made up of a series of repeating units called sarcomeres consisting of thin actin and thicker myosin filaments.
  74. 74What is the I band, A band and H zone in a myofibril and which change during contraction?I band = actin
    H zone = myosin
    A band = overlap + H zone
    H and I decrease during contraction
    A band stays the same because it is always the length of the myosin.
  75. 75Slow twitch fibre is AKA...oxidative
  76. 76Fast twitch fibre is AKA...glycolytic
  77. 77Everything about a slow twitch fibreMany mitochondria.
    Large amount of red myoglobin.
    Associated w/ numerous capillaries.
    Specialised for slower sustained contraction.
    Can cope with long periods of exercise w/o fatigue.
    relys on glucose and continues to produce ATP when O2 is available.
  78. 78Everything about fast twitch fibresFew mitochiondria.
    V. little myoglobin
    Relatively few blood vessels.
    Looks much paler than slow twitch.
    Specialised for rapid, intense contractions.
    ATP is almost entirely from anaerobic glycolysis.
    Fatigue easily due to rapid build up of lactate.
    Relatively high levels of creatine phosphate.
  79. 79Define: HomeostasisThe maintenance of a stable internal environment.
  80. 80Thermoreg is controlled by...the hypothalamus
  81. 81What are the 4 methods of energy transfer?Radiation
    Conduction
    Convection
    Evaporation
  82. 82If body temperature increases too much what is the response of the effectors?Sweat glands produce more sweat.
    Vasodilation.
    Hair erector muscles relax.
    Sphincter muscles relax and the shunt vessels are closed.
  83. 83If body temperature decreases too much what is the effector response?Ateriovenous shunt opens and sphincter muscles of superficial arterioles contract.
    Hair erector muscles contract.
    Vasoconstriction.
    Skeletal muscles contract causing shivering.
    Adrenal medulla glands increase adrenaline production.
    The liver is stimulated to raise metabolic rate.
  84. 84Advantages of exerciseLowers BP and risk of CVD and HD
    Increases HDL decreases LDL
    Helps maintain a healthy weight
    Increases sensitivity of muscles to insulin so improves blood glucose regulation.
    Increases bone density.
  85. 85Disadvantages of exercising too muchImmune surpression
    Joint wear & tear
  86. 86Suggested causal mechanism for immune suppression due to overtrainingNumber and activity of T killer cells, phagocytes, B cells and T helper cells so specific immune response is decreased.
    The inflammatory response in muscles due to damaged fibres caused by heavy exercise may decrease available non-specific immune response.
  87. 87Disadvantages of exercising too littleObesity and diabetes (type II)
  88. 883 medical technologies enabling those with injuries and disabilities to take part in sportKeyhole surgery
    Prosthesis
    Medicalimaging
  89. 89Define a prosthesisAn artificial body part used by someone w/ a disability to enable them to regain some degree of normal function or appearance.
  90. 90Define dopingUse of drugs to enhance performance in sport.
  91. 91List 8 banned substancesAnabolic steroids
    Hormones and their releasing factors
    Beta-2-agonists
    Hormone agonists
    Diuretics
    Stimulants
    Narcotics
    Beta-blockers
  92. 92What is blood doping?Having a blood transfusion to remove their own blood causing the body to make more RBCs and then putting the blood back so their RBC count is raised.
  93. 93What is gene doping?Any attempt to change the genetic make-up of cells to enhance sporting performance.
  94. 94What are anabolic steroids for?Building muscle mass
  95. 95What is EPO and what does it do?Erythropoietin
    Stimulates RBC production
  96. 96What are hormone agonists?Chemicals which mask or change the action of another hormone.
  97. 97What do diuretics do?Increase urine production diluting traces of illegal substances.
  98. 98What are narcotics?Powerful pain killers that allow athletes to ignore pain and compete harder.
  99. 99What do beta-blockers do?Block the hearts response to adrenaline and decrease HR.
  100. 100What are 2 ethical standpoints?Relativist or absolutist
  101. 101Arguments for dopingUp to the athlete to weigh risks
    May be only way for some to compete at a higher level
    There is already inequality of competition due to training and resource access differences.
    If it is acceptable to pay to sleep in an o2 tent or at altitude to raise RBC count why not through blood doping?
  102. 102Arguments against dopingAthletes do not make properly informed decisions
    New drugs are not affordable to everyone.
    Heath risks
    It isn't fair if some take drugs
    Others may feel under pressure to take drugs if their competitors decide to and may have to in order to stay at the same level.
  103. 103What is the transcription initiation complex?RNA polymerase and associated transcription factors which bind to the promoter region.
  104. 104How is transcription prevented? (2 ways)Repressor molecules binding to the promoter region blocking attachment sites.
    Repressors attaching to transcription factors, preventing them forming an initiation complex.
  105. 105What are hormones?Chemical messages released directly into the blood from endocrine glands.
  106. 106What type of hormones are 1) testosterone 2) EPO1) steroid
    2) peptide
  107. 107How do anabolic steroids work?Pass through cell membrane and bind w/ receptor molecules.
    Carried to the nucleus where the hormone/receptor complex acts as a transcription factor.
    It binds to the DNA and switches on particular genes linked to protein synthesis so bigger and stronger muscles are produced.
  108. 108How do peptide hormones work?Bind to receptors on the cell surface mem
    Mem. bound complex activates a 2nd messenger in the cell cytoplasm and triggers a protein kinase cascade.
    This usually involves activation of several different proteins until the final product enters the nucleus.
    The final prod acts as a TF switching on specific genes.
  109. 109Describe the changes in the heart that bring about increased COAVN delay decreases
    SAN activity increases
    HR increases
    Strength of ventricular contraction increases
    Increased vagus return so heart muscle stretches
  110. 110What is a cruciate ligament?In the knee behind the knee-cap
    In a cross shape of 2 ligaments
    Joins bone to bone

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A2 level Biology Flashcards on Biology Topic 7 Flashcards, created by J000D97 on 03/04/2015.
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