HUMAN MEMORY

HUMAN MEMORY

1. Encoding

   • Encoding : involves forming a memory code.
     • Attention: involves focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events. Selective attention is critical to everyday functioning.
     • levels of processing: theory proposes that deeper levels of processing result in longer-lasting memory codes.
       • Structural encoding: is relatively shallow processing that empasizes the physical structural of the stimuli.
       • Phonemic encoding: which emphasizes what a word sounds like.
       • Semantic encoding: emphasize the meaning of verbal input; it involves thinking about the objects and actions that words represent.
     • Enriching Encoding:
       • Elaboration: is linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding.
       • Dual-coding: theory hold memory is enhanced by forming semantic and visual codes, since either can lead to recall.
       • Self-referent encoding: involves deciding how or whether information is personally relevant.

2. Storage

   • Storage: involves maintaining encoded information in memory over time.
   • Sensory memory: preserves information in it's original sensory form for a brief time, usually only fraction of a second.
   • Short-term memory (STM) is a limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for up to about 20 second.
     • Rehearsal : the process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the information.
   • Chunk: is a group of familiar stimuli stored as a single unit.
   • Working memory : is a limited capacity storage that temporarily maintains and store information by providing an interface between perception, memory, and action.
     • working memory capacity (WMC) refer to ones's ability to hold and manipulate information in conscious attention.
   • Long-term memory (LTM) : is an unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy period of time.
     • Flashbulb memory : which are usually vivid and detailed recollections of momentous events.
   • Clustering: the tendency to remember similar or related items in groups.
     • Conceptual hierarchy : is multilevel classification system based on common properties among items
   • Schema : is an organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience with the object or event.
   • Semantic network: consists of node representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts.
   • Connectionist, or parallel distributed processing (PDP) : models assume that cognitive processes depends on patterns of activation inn highly interconnected computational networks that resemble neural networks
   • According to Baddeley, working memory also includes a visuospatial sketchpad, an executive control system, and a episodic buffer.
     • The first component is the phonological loop that represented all STM in earlier models.
     • The second component in working memory is a visuospatial sketchpad that permits people to temporarily hold and manipulate visual images.
     • The third component is a central executive system. It control the deployment of attention, switching the focus of attention and dividing attention as needed
     • The fourth component is the episodic buffer, a temporary, limited-capacity store that allows the various components of working memory to integrate information an that serves as an interface between memory and long-term memory

3. Retrieval

   • Retrieval: involves recovering information from memory stores.
     • The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: the temporary inability to remember something you know, accompained by a feeling that it's just out of reach- is a common experience that is typically triggered by a name that one can't quite recall.
     • Misinformation effect: occurs when participation recall of event they withnessed in altered by introducing misleading postevent information .
     • Reality monitoring: refer to the process of deciding whether memories are based on external sources (one's perceptions of actual events) or internal sources (one's thoughts and imaginations).
       • Source monitoring: involves making attributions about the origins of memories.
         • Source-monitoring: error occurs when a memeory derived from one source is misattributed to another source.
           • Destination memory : involves recalling to whom one has told what.

4. Forgetting

   • Forgetting curve: graphs retention and forgetting over time.
     • Measures of Forgetting
       • Retention: refers to the proportion of material retained (remembered).
       • Recall measure of retention requires subjects to reproduce information on their own without any cues.
       • Recognition measure of retention requires subject to select previously learned information from an array of options.
       • Relearning measure of retention requires a subject to memorize information a second time to determine how much time or low many practice trials are saved by having learned it before.
     • The encoding specificity principle state that the valve of a retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds to the memory code.
       • Transfer-appropriate processing occurs when the initial processing of information is similar to the type of processing required by the subsequent measure of retention.
         • Repression refer to keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious
     • Why We Forget
       • Some forgetting, including pseudoforgetting, is due to ineffective encoding of information.
       • Decay: theory proposes that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time.
       • Interference: theory proposes that people forget information because of competition from other material.
         • Retroactive interference occurs when new information impairs the retention of preivously learned informatio.
           • Proactive interference: occurs when previously learned information interferes with the retention of new information.

5. The Physiology of Memory

   • Long-term potentiation (LTP) : is a long-lasting increase in neural excitability at synapses along a specific neural pathway.
   • The anatomy of Memory
     • Retrograde amnesia: involve loss of memories for events that occurred prior on the onset of amnesia.
       • Anterograde amnesia: involves the loss of memories for event that occur after the onset of amnesia.
         • Consolidation : is a hypothetical process involving the gradual conversion of information into durable memory codes stored in long-term memory.

6. Systems and Types of Memory

   • Implicit memory: is apparent when retention is exhibited on a task that does not require intentional remembering. Implicit memory is contrasted with Explicit memory , which involves intention recollection of previous experiences
   • Semantic versus Episodic memory
     • The episodic memory system is made up of chronological, or temporally dated, recollections of personal experiences.
     • The semantic memory system contains general knowledge that is not tied to the time when the information was learned.
   • Declarative versus Procedural
     • The declarative memory: is a system handles factual information.
     • The nondeclarative or procedural memory system houses memory for actions, skills, operations, and conditioned responses.
   • Prospective Verious Retrospective Memory
     • Prospective memory : involves in remembering to perform actions in the future
     • Retrospective memory involves remembering events from the past or previously learned information.

7. The hindsight bias is the tendency to mould our interpretation of the past to fit how events actually turned out.

8. Improving Everyday Memory

   • Mnemonic devices are methods used to increase the recall of information
   • The serial-position effect occurs when subjects show better recall for items at the beginning and end of a list than for items in the middle
   • The link method involves forming a mental image of items to be remembered in a way that links them together.
   • The method of loci involve taking an imaginary walk along a familiar path where images of items to be remembered are associated with certain locations
   • The keyword methods, in which you associate a concrete word with an abstract word and generate an image to represent the concrete