Question 10

Question 10

1. Types of memory

   • Sensory memory
     •    Sensory memory is a brief and almost identical representation of the stimuli that exist in the observable environment. Sensory memory takes in large amounts of information rapidly. However, unless we pay attention to sensory information, the representation will be lost rapidly. Age differences are not typically found in sensory memory. From the functional perspective, attention is composed of separate dimensions serving different functions. The complex tasks we engage in when processing information usually require more than one attentional function. Attentional processes are influenced by the capacity to sustain attention, as well as the speed that information is processed. Age-related changes in various aspects of attention are linked to age-related changes in parieto-frontal lobe integration (p.160).   
   • Working memory
     •    Working Memory Working memory is the active processes and structures involved in holding information in mind and simultaneously using that information, sometimes in conjunction with incoming information, to solve a problem, make a decision, or learn new information. Researchers typically consider working memory an umbrella term for many similar short-term holding and computational processes relating to a wide range of cognitive skills and knowledge domains. Working memory therefore plays an active, critical, and central role in encoding, storage, and retrieval (p.163). Working memory has a relatively small capacity. Because working memory deals with information being processed right at this moment, it also acts as a kind of mental scratchpad. This means that unless we take direct action to keep the information active, it will be discarded. For this reason, we need a way to keep information in working memory. That process is known as rehearsal.   
   • Long-term memory
     •    Long-term Memory Long-term memory refers to the ability to remember rather extensive amounts of information from a few seconds to a few hours to decades. Well over a century of research indicates long-term memory represents a relatively large-capacity store where information can be kept for long periods. Mounting evidence in cognitive neuroscience suggests long-term memory is not a unitary construct, but consists of distinct, functionally different multiple systems and multiple systems that are served by different brain structures. Semantic and episodic memory are two of the more deliberate and effortful systems of explicit long-term memory. Semantic memory concerns learning and remembering the meaning of words and concepts not tied to specific occurrences of events in time. Examples of semantic memory include knowing the definitions of words in order to complete crossword puzzles, being able to translate texts, etc. Episodic memory is the general class of memory having to do with the conscious recollection of information from a specific event or point in time. Examples of episodic memory include learning course material, remembering what you did on your vacation last year, and memorizing a speech for a play.      Long-term Memory Long-term memory refers to the ability to remember rather extensive amounts of information from a few seconds to a few hours to decades. Well over a century of research indicates long-term memory represents a relatively large-capacity store where information can be kept for long periods. Mounting evidence in cognitive neuroscience suggests long-term memory is not a unitary construct, but consists of distinct, functionally different multiple systems and multiple systems that are served by different brain structures. Semantic and episodic memory are two of the more deliberate and effortful systems of explicit long-term memory. 
     • Implicit memory
       •    Implicit memory (sometimes called procedural memory) involves retrieval of information without conscious or intentional recollection. Implicit memory has to do with routine and familiar actions which are performed from memory without having to think about them, e.g. brushing teeth. It’s not something we consciously think about at the time, we just remember how to do it.   
     • Explicit
       • Episodic Memory
         •    Episodic memory is the general class of memory having to do with the conscious recollection of information from a specific event or point in time. Examples of episodic memory include learning course material, remembering what you did on your vacation last year, and memorizing a speech for a play.   
       • Semantic memory
         •    Semantic memory concerns learning and remembering the meaning of words and concepts not tied to specific occurrences of events in time. Examples of semantic memory include knowing the definitions of words in order to complete crossword puzzles, being able to translate texts, etc.   
   • Other types of memory

2. Things that can affect memory

   • Internal Study strategies
     •    One thing that helps people remember information in episodic memory tests is using internal study strategies, such as rehearsal or organising information into categories. Older adults tend to be less efficient at spontaneously using these strategies but they can and do use them when instructed to do so, and show significant improvements in performance. However these improvements are generally not sufficient to improve age differences in recall, indicating that age differences in recall of episodic information is caused more by retrieval problems than poor encoding during study. Age differences can be reduced (but not eliminated) in several other ways: -        Allowing older adults to practice or perform a similar task before learning a new list -        Using material more familiar to older adults -        Using compensatory strategies to help themselves remember Autobiographical memory is a type of episodic memory process that is relatively spared with age.   

3. Age-related decline

   • Working memory
     •    Most evidence indicates that there is significant age-related decline in working memory, although the extent of this decline is still in doubt. The loss of some of the ability to hold items in working memory may limit older adults’ overall cognitive functioning. If information becomes degraded or is only partially integrated into one’s knowledge base toe to problems in working memory, it will be difficult to remember it (p.163). However, some evidence suggests age differences in working memory are not universal. Working memory appears to depend on the type of information being used and may vary across different tasks (pp.163-164). For example, age-related decline in spatial working memory tends to be greater than that in verbal working memory, although there is decline in both types. Why does working memory ability decline with age? There are several reasons, including altertness at different times of day, order of tasks, and task interference. Another idea is that older adults have more trouble juggling all the elements once they are accessed. Although the evidence for age-related decline in working memory is not entirely clear, there is compelling evidence for how age differences in working memory relate to performance on more complex cognitive tasks. For example, researchers have begun to show working memory may be key to understanding the age differences in recall performance.   
   • Long-term memory
     • Explicit memory
       •    Whether age differences in implicit memory are observed depends on the specific kind of implicit memory task in question. Learning sequences tends to show age differences, whereas learning spatial context does not. Neuroscience imaging research shows the kind of over-activity in the frontal cortex in older adults that is typical in situations when older adults are compensating for declines. By far most research on memory aging focuses on explicit memory. In general, performance on explicit memory tasks declines with age, although there are many exceptions and qualifications.     
       • Semantic memory
         •    semantic memory increases from 35-55 years of age and then levels off. Although semantic memory starts to decline at age 65, the decline is much less substantial than for episodic memory.      Semantic memory Semantic memory is relatively spared in normal aging. Evidence suggests there are no deficits in semantic memory processes such as language comprehension, the structure of knowledge, and the activation of general knowledge. Semantic memory retrieval typically does not tax working memory, and thus older adults can draw upon experience in word meanings and/or general world knowledge. In addition, whereas retrieval of episodic memories is based on cues to the original experience, semantic memories are retrieved conceptually as part of our world knowledge (this link is discussed in chapter 7). However, research also shows age changes in semantic memory can happen if it becomes hard to access and retrieve. One reason for access problems is if the knowledge in semantic memory is not used on a regular basis (e.g. learning and then later struggling with an additional language). A second reason is simple momentary retrieval failure for information that is otherwise accessible, e.g. tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) experiences. Older adults experience more TOTs, but also report less partial information about the target. Such TOT problems indicate even highly familiar information can become more difficult to retrieve as we become older.  
       • Episodic
         • Episodic memory seems fairly stable until 55-60 years of age and then shows a precipitous decline beginning around age 65.    Episodic memory Because episodic memory includes so many daily activities performed by adults, it has been the focus of more research than any other single topic in memory development. Typically, researchers study episodic memory by having people learn information, such as a list of words, and then asking them to recall or recognise the items. In a recall test people are asked to remember information without hints or queues. Examples include telling everything you can about a movie or essay type exam questions with no notes or access to materials.  
     • Implicit memory
       •    Whether age differences in implicit memory are observed depends on the specific kind of implicit memory task in question. Learning sequences tends to show age differences, whereas learning spatial context does not. Neuroscience imaging research shows the kind of over-activity in the frontal cortex in older adults that is typical in situations when older adults are compensating for declines.   
   • Encoding and retireval
     •    Encoding Years of research suggests an age-related decrement in encoding processes. The most important reason for these changes is that adults’ spontaneous use of strategies during the learning of new information declines with age. A strategy is anything people do to make the task easier and increase the efficiency of encoding or retrieval. Compared to younger adults, older adults tend not to behave as strategically when studying information to be remembered. This reflects only a decrease in the tendency to use them spontaneously rather than a decrease in the ability to do so. Because of this tendency, at least part of the reason why older adults perform worse than younger adults on tests of memory recall is because of poorer encoding. Retrieval Research strongly indicates that older adults do worse than younger adults at recalling information. Older adults tend to spontaneously use fewer retrieval strategies. Even when encoding strategies are provided and the opportunity to apply them during recall is allowed, older adults still do worse. Based on extensive research, researchers have generally concluded that most of the reason why memory performance declines with age has to do with retrieval problems.