HUMAN MEMORY

HUMAN MEMORY

1. ENCODING

   • -Attention, which entails a selective focus on certain input, enhances encoding -levels of processing theory proposes that deeper levels of processing result in more durable memory codes -structural, phonemic and semantic encoding represent progressively deeper levels pf processing -elaboration, the use of visual imagery, self-referent encoding, and increasing the motivation to remember can enhance coding and retention

2. STORAGE

   • -information-processing theories propose that people  have three memory stores, sensory memory, short-term memory (STM) and long term memory (LTM) -Atkinson and Shiffrin posited that incoming information passes through two temporary storage buffers before being placed into long term memory - The three main memory stores are not viewed as anatomical structures but as distinct types of memory
   • Sensory Memory
     • -Stores memory in its original form for a very short amount of time - memory traces in the sensory store appear to decay in about one-quarter of a second
   • Short-Term Memory
     • -Can maintain 7 chunks of unrehearsed info for approx 20 secs -is working memory -Baddeledy's model of working memory consists of four components: the phonological loop, the visuospatial sketchpad, the central executive, and the episodic buffer -some theorisits view short-term memory as a tiny, constantly changing portion of LTM in a state of activation.
   • Long-Term Memory
     • -has an unlimited capasity that  can hold information forever -flash buld memories and Penfield's ESB research suggest that LTM storage may be permanent, butte data isn't convincing - Memories can be organized in a variety of ways
     • Organization of LTM
       • Conceptual Hierarchies
         • Multi-level classification system based on common properties among items
       • Schemas
         • an organized cluster of information about an object or event
       • Semantic Networks
         • Consists of concepts joined by pathways linking related concepts 
       • Connectionist networks
         • PDP models assume that memories consit of patterns of activation in connectionist networks that resemble neural networks
   • http://www.cse.iitk.ac.in/users/se367/11/se367/ruhidang/project/images/memory2.jpg

3. RETREIVAL

   • -Recall is often guided by partial information, as demonstrated by the tip-of-the tongue phenomenon -Reinstating the context of an even can often enhance retrieval efforts -memories are sketchy reconstructions of the past that may be distorted -misinformation effects occurs when recall of an event is changed by misleading post even information -the act of retelling a story can also introduce inaccuracy into the memory -source-monitoring error occurs when a memory derived from one source is attributed to another source -reality monitoring involves deciding whether memories are based on ones perceptions of actual events or ones thoughts and imaginations. -destination memory involves recalling to whom one was has told what.

4. FORGETTING

   • Measuring Forgetting
     • -people view forgetting as a deficiency but it can actually be adaptive in that it can make it easier to remember more important information -Retention can be assessed with a recall measure, or a releasing measure -Ebbinghaus's work suggests that most forgetting occurs very rapidly, but the subsequent research indicates that his forgetting curve was steep
   • Repressed Memories
     • -in resent years there has been a surge of reports of recovered memories of previously forgotten sexual abuse in childhood - while many accept these memorise, arguing that its is comomn for people to bury traumatic memories in their inconscious, research suggests that it is an easy way to create inaccurate memories
     • http://www.theaterhopper.com/wordpress/comics/2002-08-12.jpg
   • Why We Forget
     • -pseudoforgetting- due to ineffective encoding -decay theory- memory traces fade with time, decay isn't a factor in LTM -Interference theory asserts that people forget info because of competition from other material, which has proven easy to demonstrate.-forgetting is often to retrieval failure, which may include repression
   • Types of Memory Failure
     • Daniel Schacter summarized memory failure in his seven sins of memory: transience, absent-mindedness, blocking, misattribution, suggestability, bias, and persistence

5. PHYSIOLOGY OF MEMORY

   • Neural Circuitry of memory
     • -some theorists argue that memories may correspond to alterations in neurotransmitter activity at specific synapses -some theorists believe that memories may correspond to localized  neural pathways in the brain -these pathways may depend on increases in neural excitability at specific synapses, which is called long-term potentiation.
   • Anatomy of memory
     • -retrograde amnesia involves the loss of memories from events that occurred prior to the onset of amnesia. Anterograde amnesia involves the loss of memories fro events that occur after the onset of amnesia 

6. PROPOSED MEMORY SYSTEMS

   • Observed Memory Phenomena
     • Explicit Memory
       • -involves intentional recollection of previous expirences -explicit memory is conscious, accessed directly, and best assessed with recall or recognition measures retention
     • Implicit Memory
       • -is apparent when retention is exhibited on a task that does not require intentional remembering -implicit memory is unconscious, accessed indirectly, and best asessed with relearning measures of retention
   • Underlying Memory Systems
     • Declarative Memory
       • handles recall of factual information, such as names, dates, events and ideas 
       • Semantic Vs Episodic Memory
         • -semantic memory system contain general knowledge that is not temporally dated. -episodic memory system handles temporally dated recollections of personal experiences
       • Prospective vs Retrospective Memory
         • -prospective memory involves remembering to perform actions in the future -retrospective memory involves remembering events from the past or previously learned information
     • Nondeclarative Memory
       • handles recall of actions, skills and operations, such as riding a bike or typing

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