PHONOLOGICAL ASPECTS

PHONOLOGICAL ASPECTS

1. STRESS

   • Words have patterns of stress, e.g. we stress the first syllable of 'simple' - SIMple, not simPLE
   • Stress can be used to place emphasis on individual words and may influence the meaning of an utterance

2. INTONATION

   • Tone of voice, refers to the way in which pitch can rise and fall in speech
     • e.g. statements end in falling intonation, whereas questions may end in rising intonation
       • Can change from declarative to interrogative mood
   • Rising intonation can also indicate emotional states, e.g. excitement, enthusiasm
   • Falling intonation can indicate sadness or disappointment
   • Lack of variety in intonation (monotonous speech) is likely to be unengaging and lessen the listener's ability to comprehend fully what is being said

3. TEMPO

   • Speed or pace of speech
   • Slow, measured speech can convey calmness and reassurance, whereas interest or enthusiasm may be shown with faster tempo
     • Fast speech may be the result of anxiety
   • Sports commentaries demonstrate how different contexts are associated with variations in tempo, e.g. snooker is generally slow, whereas horse racing is likely to be more frantic

4. PAUSES

   • UNVOICED PAUSES
     • A silent pause
     • May be natural breaks, e.g. a comma or full stop in written texts, but can also be a non-fluency feature that indicates hesitation
     • Can also be used deliberately to achieve certain effects, e.g. before the punchline of a joke
   • VOICED PAUSES
     • Also called 'filled' pause, a sound such as 'um' or 'er'

5. ORAL SIGNALS

   • Expressive sounds, e.g. laughs, sighs, gasps etc.
     • Can be represented by words such as 'mm' and 'ah' in transcripts

6. VOLUME

   • Can reflect attitude and emotional state
     • Quiet speaking may express sympathy or kindness, whereas speaking loudly may represent anger
   • Changes in volume may reflect changes in mood
   • Can also link to status
     • Superiors may raise their voices to subordinates

7. PRONUNCIATION

   • Accent can express regional and social identity
     • Influences the impressions that others may have of a speaker
   • Received pronunciation has social prestige, associated with status and authority
     • Considered less friendly than many regional accents
   • Non-standard spelling in transcripts, e.g. 'fing' not 'thing' may indicate accent

8. TRANSCRIPTION CONVENTIONS

   • MICROPAUSING (.)
   • PAUSING (3)
   • STRESS
   • LOUD SPEECH
   • OVERLAPPING SPEECH //
   • RISING INTONATION /
   • FALLING INTONATION \
   • (NON VERBAL BEHAVIOUR)