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Earth Space Science Study Guides
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6.1 Running Water
Key Concepts
·
Water constantly moves among the oceans, the
atmosphere, the solid Earth, and the biosphere. This unending circulation of
Earth’s water supply is the water cycle
·
Balance in the water cycle means the average
annual precipitation over Earth equals the amount of water that
evaporates.
·
The ability of a stream to erode and transport
materials depends largely on its velocity.
·
While gradient decreases between a stream’s
headwaters and mouth, discharge increases.
·
Base level is the lowest point to which a stream
can erode its channel.
Vocabulary
·
Water cycle - the constant movement of water
among the oceans, the atmosphere, geosphere, and the biosphere
·
Infiltration - the movement of surface water
into rock or soil through cracks and pore spaces
·
Gradient - the slope of a stream over a certain
distance
·
Stream channel - the course that the water in a
stream follows
·
Discharge - the quantity of water in a stream
that passes a given point in a period of time
·
Tributary - a stream that empties itself into
another stream
·
Meander - a looplike bend in the course of a
stream
6.2 The Work of Streams
Key Concepts
·
Streams generally erode their channels by
dissolving soluble material, by lifting loose particles, and by abrasion, or
grinding.
·
Streams transport their load of sediment in
three ways: (1) in solution (dissolved load), (2) in suspension (suspended
load), and (3) scooting or rolling along the bottom (bed load).
·
Deposition occurs as streamflow drops below the
critical settling velocity of a certain particle size.
·
There are two general types of stream valleys:
narrow V-shaped valleys and wide valleys with flat floors.
·
Most floods are caused by rapid spring snow melt
and storms that bring heavy rains over a large region.
·
Measures to control flooding include the
construction of artificial levees, building flood control dams, and placing
limits on floodplain development.
·
A drainage basin is the land area that
contributes water to a stream.
Vocabulary
·
Bed load - sediment that is carried by a stream
along the bottom of its channel
·
Capacity - the total amount of sediment a stream
is able to transport
·
Delta - an accumulation of sediment formed where
a stream enters a lake or an ocean
·
Natural levee - an elevated landform that
parallels a stream and acts to confine its waters, except during floodstage
·
Floodplain - the flat, low-lying portion of a
stream valley subject to periodic flooding
·
Flood - occurs when the discharge of a stream
becomes so great that it exceeds the carrying capacity of its channel and
overflows its banks
·
Drainage basin - the land area that contributes
water to a stream
·
Divide - an imaginary line that separates the
drainage of two streams; often found along a ridge
6.3 Water beneath the Surface
Key Concepts
·
Much of the water in soil seeps downward until
it reaches the zone of saturation. The zone of saturation is the area where
water fills all of the open spaces in sediment and rock. Groundwater is the
water within this zone.
·
Groundwater moves by twisting and turning
through interconnected small openings. The groundwater moves more slowly when
the pore spaces are smaller.
·
A spring forms whenever the water table
intersects the ground surface.
·
Overuse and contamination threatens groundwater
supplies in some areas.
·
Erosion forms most caverns at or below the water
table in the zone of saturation.
·
Karst areas typically have irregular terrain,
with many depressions called sinkholes.
Vocabulary
·
Zone of saturation - zone where all open spaces
in sediment and rock are completely filled with water
·
Groundwater - water underground in the zone of
saturation
·
Water table - the upper level of the saturated
zone of groundwater
·
Porosity - the volume of open spaces in rock or
soil
·
Permeability - a measure of a material’s ability
to transmit fluids
·
Aquifer - rock or soil through which groundwater
moves easily
·
Spring - a flow of groundwater that emerges
naturally at the ground surface
·
Geyser - a hot spring or fountain that ejects
water at various intervals
·
Well - an opening bored into the zone of
saturation
·
Artesian well - a well in which the water
naturally rises above the level of the water table
·
Cavern - a naturally formed underground chamber
or series of chambers most commonly produced by solution activity in limestone
·
Travertine - a form of limestone that is
deposited by hot springs or as a cave deposit
·
Karst topography - an area that has a land
surface or topography with numerous depressions called sinkholes
·
Sinkhole - a depression produced in a region
where soluble rock has been removed by groundwater
20.1 Air Masses
Key Concepts
·
An air mass is an immense body of air that is
characterized by similar temperatures and amounts of moisture at any given
altitude.
·
As an air mass moves, its characteristics can
change and so does the weather in the area over which the air mass moves.
·
Air masses are classified according to their
source region, the place where they form.
·
Much of the weather in North America is influenced
by continental polar (cP) and maritime tropical (mT) air masses.
·
Polar (P) or tropical (T) indicates the
temperature of an air mass. Continental (c) or maritime (m) indicates whether
the air mass is dry or humid.
Vocabulary
·
Air mass - a large body of air that is
characterized by similar temperatures and amounts of moisture at any given
altitude
20.2 Fronts
Key Concepts
·
When two air masses meet, they form a front,
which is a boundary that separates two contrasting air masses.
·
A warm front forms when warm air moves into an
area formerly covered by cooler air.
·
A cold front forms when cold, dense air moves
into a region occupied by warmer air.
·
A stationary front forms when the surface
position between two air masses does not move.
·
An occluded front forms when a cold front
overtakes a warm front, producing a complex weather pattern.
·
A middle-latitude cyclone is a large center of
low pressure that generally travels from west to east and causes stormy
weather.
Vocabulary
Front - the boundary between
two adjoining air masses having contrasting characteristics
Warm front - a front along
which a warm air mass overrides a retreating mass of cooler air
Cold front - a front along
which a cold air mass thrusts beneath a warmer air mass
stationary front - a situation
in which the surface position of a front does not move; The flow on either side
of such a boundary is nearly parallel to the position of the front
occluded front - a front formed
when a cold front overtakes a warm front; It marks the beginning of the end of
a middle-latitude cyclone.
20.3 Severe Storms
Key Concepts
·
A thunderstorm generates thunder and lightning
and frequently produces gusty winds, heavy rain, and hail. Thunderstorms form
when warm, humid air rises in an unstable environment.
·
Tornadoes are violent windstorms that take the
form of a rotating column of air called a vortex, which extends downward from a
cumulonimbus cloud. Most tornadoes are associated with severe thunderstorms.
·
Hurricanes are whirling tropical cyclones with
high winds that sometimes develop over the ocean when water temperatures are
warm enough to provide the necessary heat and moisture to fuel the storms.
Vocabulary
·
Thunderstorm - a storm produced by a
cumulonimbus cloud and always accompanied by lightning and thunder; It is of
relatively short duration and usually accompanied by strong wind gusts, heavy
rain, and sometimes hail.
·
Tornado - a small, very intense cyclonic storm
with exceedingly high winds, most often produced along cold fronts in
conjunction with severe thunderstorms
·
Hurricane - a tropical cyclonic storm having
winds in excess of 119 kilometers per hour
·
Eye wall - the doughnut-shaped area of intense
cumulonimbus development and very strong winds that surrounds the eye of a
hurricane
·
Eye - a zone of scattered clouds and calm
averaging about 20 kilometers in diameter at the center of a hurricane
·
storm surge - the abnormal rise of the sea along
a shore as a result of strong winds
Diagrams
Practice Assessment
1. If an area is experiencing consecutive days of constant
weather, this weather is called
A. air-mass weather.
B. warm-front weather.
C. cold-front weather.
D. occluded-front weather.
2. An air mass that forms over the Gulf of Mexico is a(n)
A. cP air mass.
B. mP air mass.
C. cT air mass.
D. mT air mass.
3. Air masses that have the greatest influence on weather in
the midwestern United States are
A. mT and cT air masses.
B. cP and mT air masses.
C. mP and cP air masses.
D. cT and cP air masses.
4. Lake-effect snow is associated with a(n)
A. mP air mass.
B. cP air mass.
C. mT air mass.
D. cT air mass.
5. “Rain long foretold, long last; short notice, soon past.”
The first five words of this weather proverb refer to a(n)
A. cold front.
B. warm front.
C. anticyclone.
D. tornado.
6. Which front often produces hours of moderate-to-light
precipitation over a large area?
A. polar
B. maritime
C. cold
D. warm
7. A thunderstorm is most intense during its
A. cumulus stage.
B. wave stage.
C. mature stage.
D. dissipating stage.
8. When a hurricane reaches land, its intensity decreases as
the result of
A. increase in pressure and temperature.
B. lack of cold, dry air to fuel the storm.
C. successive updrafts into the eye wall.
D. friction and the lack of warm, moist air.
9. The eye of a hurricane
A. has the greatest wind speeds.
B. is warmer than the rest of the storm.
C. experiences high pressures.
D. is responsible for heavy precipitation.
10. An air mass that forms over northern Canada is a
A. maritime tropical air mass.
B. maritime polar air mass.
C. continental polar air mass.
D. continental tropical air mass.
11. Which air mass would be characterized by warm and dry
air?
A. maritime tropical air mass
B. maritime polar air mass
C. continental polar air mass
D. continental tropical air mass
12. Lake-effect snow forms in the northeastern United States and
southeastern Canada
A. directly over the Great Lakes.
B. on the leeward sides of the Great Lakes.
C. on the windward sides of the Great Lakes.
D. along the Atlantic coast.
13. Indian summer in New York in the autumn is the result of what
type of air mass?
A. maritime tropical air mass
B. maritime polar air mass
C. continental polar air mass
D. continental tropical air mass
14. What type of front forms when warm air moves into an area
with cooler air?
A. occluded front
B. stationary front
C. warm front
D. cold front
15. In the midwestern United States, a middle-latitude cyclone is
a
A. tropical hurricane.
B. exceptionally large tornado.
C. large center of high pressure.
D. large center of low pressure.
16. In what direction do most weather systems move across the
continental United States?
A. from west to east
B. from east to west
C. from north to south
D. from south to north
17. What conditions are necessary for the formation of a
thunderstorm?
A. cold, dry unstable air
B. warm, dry stable air
C. warm, humid unstable air
D. cold, humid stable air
18. In a hurricane, the highest wind speeds and heaviest rainfall
occur
A. inside the eye.
B. in the eye wall.
C. along the hurricane’s leading edge.
D. along the hurricane’s trailing edge.
19. Tornadoes form
A. in all thunderstorms.
B. in association with anticyclones.
C. in association with high-pressure centers.
D. in some severe thunderstorms.
Answers
1. A
2. D
3. B
4. B
5. B
6. D
7. C
8. D
9. B
10. C
11. D
12. B
13. D
14. C
15. D
16. A
17. C
18. B
19. D
22.1
Early Astronomy
Key
Concepts
·
In the geocentric model, the moon, sun, and the
known planets—Mercury, Venus, Mars, and Jupiter—orbit Earth.
·
In the heliocentric model, Earth and the other
planets orbit the sun.
·
Copernicus placed the sun at the center of the
solar system, with the planets orbiting around it.
·
Brahe’s observations, especially of Mars, were
far more precise than any made previously.
·
Using Brahe’s precise observations, Kepler
discovered three laws of planetary motion.
·
Galileo described the behavior of moving
objects.
·
Newton was the first to formulate and test the
law of universal gravitation.
Vocabulary
·
Astronomy - the scientific study of the
universe; It includes the observation and interpretation of celestial bodies
and phenomena.
·
Geocentric - describes the concept of an
Earth-centered universe
·
Heliocentric - describes the view that the sun
is at the center of the solar system
·
Retrograde motion - the apparent westward motion
of the planets with respect to the stars
·
Ellipse - an oval
·
Astronomical unit (AU)- average distance from
Earth to the sun; 1.5 × 108, or 150 million kilometers
22.2
The Earth-Moon-Sun System
Key
Concepts
·
The two main motions of Earth are rotation and
revolution.
·
Lunar phases are a result of the motion of the
moon and the sunlight that is reflected from its surface.
·
An eclipse can only occur during a new moon or
full moon when the moon’s orbit crosses the plane of the ecliptic.
Vocabulary
·
Rotation - the spinning of a body, such as
Earth, about its axis
·
Revolution - the motion of one body about
another, as Earth about the sun
·
Precession - a slow motion of Earth’s axis that
traces out a cone over a period of 26,000 years
·
Perihelion - the point in the orbit of a planet
where it is closest to the sun
·
Aphelion - the place in the orbit of a planet
where the planet is farthest from the sun
·
Perigee - the point at which the moon is closest
to Earth
·
Apogee - the point where the moon is farthest
from Earth
·
Phases of the moon - the progression of changes
in the moon’s appearance during the month
·
Solar eclipse - an eclipse of the sun; A solar
eclipse occurs when the moon moves in a line directly between Earth and the
sun, casting a shadow on Earth.
·
Lunar eclipse - an eclipse of the moon; A lunar
eclipse occurs when the moon passes through Earth’s shadow.
22.3
Earth’s Moon
Key
Concepts
·
Most craters were produced by the impact of
rapidly moving debris.
·
Mare, an ancient bed of basaltic lava,
originated when asteroids punctured the lunar surface, letting the magma bleed
out.
·
The most widely accepted model for the origin of
the moon is that when solar system was forming, a body the size of Mars
impacted Earth.
Vocabulary
·
Crater - the depression at the summit of a
volcano or that which is produced by a meteorite impact
·
Ray - any of a system of bright elongated
streaks, sometimes associated with a crater on the moon
·
Mare - the Latin name for the smooth areas of
the moon formerly thought to be seas
·
Rille - long channel associated with lunar
maria; A rille looks similar to a valley or a trench.
·
Lunar regolith - a thin, gray layer on the
surface of the moon, consisting of loosely compacted, fragmented material
believed to have been formed by repeated impacts of meteorites
17.1 Atmosphere
Characteristics
Key Concepts
· Weather is constantly changing, and
it refers to the state of the atmosphere at any given time or place. Climate is
the sum of all statistical weather information that helps describe a place or
region.
· Water vapor is the source of all
clouds and precipitation. Like carbon dioxide, it absorbs heat given off by
Earth as well as some solar energy.
· If ozone did not filter most UV
radiation, Earth would be uninhabitable to many living organisms.
· The atmosphere thins as you travel
away from Earth, until there are too few gas molecules to detect
· The atmosphere can be divided
vertically into four layers by temperature (troposphere, stratosphere,
mesosphere, & thermosphere)
· Seasonal changes occur because
Earth’s position relative to the sun continually changes as it travels along
its orbit.
Vocabulary
· Ozone – a molecule of oxygen
containing 3 oxygen atoms
· Troposphere – the lowermost layer of
the atmosphere; It is generally characterized by decrease in temperature with
height.
· Stratosphere – the layer of the
atmosphere immediately above the troposphere, characterized by increasing
temperatures with height, due to concentration of the ozone.
· Mesosphere – the layer of the
atmosphere immediately above the stratosphere and characterized by decreasing
temperatures with height.
· Thermosphere – the region of the
atmosphere immediately above the mesosphere and characterized by increasing
temperatures due to absorption of very short-wave solar energy oxygen.
· Summer Solstice – the solstice that
occurs on June 21 or 22
· Winter Solstice - the solstice that
occurs on December 21 or 22.
· Aphelion – the place in orbit where
the planet is furthest from the sun
· Perihelion – the place in orbit
where the planet is closest to the sun.
17.2 Heating &
Atmosphere
Key Concepts
· Heat is the transfer of energy
between two objects resulting from differences in their temperatures.
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of individual particles.
· Three mechanisms of heat transfer
are conduction, convection, and radiation. Unlike conduction and convection,
radiant energy can travel through the vacuum of space.
· All objects, at any temperature,
emit radiant energy. Hotter objects radiate more total energy per unit area
than colder objects do. The hottest radiating bodies produce the shortest
wavelengths of maximum radiation. Objects that are good absorbers of radiation
are good emitters as well.
· Objects can absorb, transmit,
scatter, or reflect radiation that strikes them.
Vocabulary
· Temperature – a measure of the
average kinetic energy of individual atoms or molecules in a substance.
· Conduction – the transfer of heat
through matter by molecular activity; Energy is transferred through collisions
from one molecule to another.
· Convection – the transfer of heat by
the movement of a mass or substance; It can take place only in fluids.
· Radiation – the transfer of energy
(heat through space by electromagnetic waves).
· Reflection – the process whereby
light bounces back from an object at the same angle at which it encounters a
surface and with the same intensity.
· Scattering - redirecting (in
all directions) of light by small particles and gas molecules in the
atmosphere; The result is more light rays with weaker intensity.
· Greenhouse Effect – the heating of
Earth’s surface and atmosphere from solar radiation being absorbed and emitted
by the atmosphere, mainly by water vapor and carbon dioxide
17.3 Temperature
Controls
Key Concepts
· Factors other than latitude that
exert a strong influence on temperature include heating of land and water,
altitude, geographic position, cloud cover, and ocean currents.
· Land heats more rapidly and to
higher temperatures than water. Land also cools more rapidly and to lower
temperatures than water.
Vocabulary
· Albedo – the fraction of total
radiation that is reflected back by a surface.
· Isotherm – a line connecting points
of equal temperature.
17.1 Atmosphere
Characteristics
Key Concepts
· Weather is constantly changing, and
it refers to the state of the atmosphere at any given time or place. Climate is
the sum of all statistical weather information that helps describe a place or
region.
· Water vapor is the source of all
clouds and precipitation. Like carbon dioxide, it absorbs heat given off by
Earth as well as some solar energy.
· If ozone did not filter most UV
radiation, Earth would be uninhabitable to many living organisms.
· The atmosphere thins as you travel
away from Earth, until there are too few gas molecules to detect
· The atmosphere can be divided
vertically into four layers by temperature (troposphere, stratosphere,
mesosphere, & thermosphere)
· Seasonal changes occur because
Earth’s position relative to the sun continually changes as it travels along
its orbit.
Vocabulary
· Ozone – a molecule of oxygen
containing 3 oxygen atoms
· Troposphere – the lowermost layer of
the atmosphere; It is generally characterized by decrease in temperature with
height.
· Stratosphere – the layer of the
atmosphere immediately above the troposphere, characterized by increasing
temperatures with height, due to concentration of the ozone.
· Mesosphere – the layer of the
atmosphere immediately above the stratosphere and characterized by decreasing
temperatures with height.
· Thermosphere – the region of the
atmosphere immediately above the mesosphere and characterized by increasing
temperatures due to absorption of very short-wave solar energy oxygen.
· Summer Solstice – the solstice that
occurs on June 21 or 22
· Winter Solstice - the solstice that
occurs on December 21 or 22.
· Aphelion – the place in orbit where
the planet is furthest from the sun
· Perihelion – the place in orbit
where the planet is closest to the sun.
17.2 Heating &
Atmosphere
Key Concepts
· Heat is the transfer of energy
between two objects resulting from differences in their temperatures.
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of individual particles.
· Three mechanisms of heat transfer
are conduction, convection, and radiation. Unlike conduction and convection,
radiant energy can travel through the vacuum of space.
· All objects, at any temperature,
emit radiant energy. Hotter objects radiate more total energy per unit area
than colder objects do. The hottest radiating bodies produce the shortest
wavelengths of maximum radiation. Objects that are good absorbers of radiation
are good emitters as well.
· Objects can absorb, transmit,
scatter, or reflect radiation that strikes them.
Vocabulary
· Temperature – a measure of the
average kinetic energy of individual atoms or molecules in a substance.
· Conduction – the transfer of heat
through matter by molecular activity; Energy is transferred through collisions
from one molecule to another.
· Convection – the transfer of heat by
the movement of a mass or substance; It can take place only in fluids.
· Radiation – the transfer of energy
(heat through space by electromagnetic waves).
· Reflection – the process whereby
light bounces back from an object at the same angle at which it encounters a
surface and with the same intensity.
· Scattering - redirecting (in
all directions) of light by small particles and gas molecules in the
atmosphere; The result is more light rays with weaker intensity.
· Greenhouse Effect – the heating of
Earth’s surface and atmosphere from solar radiation being absorbed and emitted
by the atmosphere, mainly by water vapor and carbon dioxide
17.3 Temperature
Controls
Key Concepts
· Factors other than latitude that
exert a strong influence on temperature include heating of land and water,
altitude, geographic position, cloud cover, and ocean currents.
· Land heats more rapidly and to
higher temperatures than water. Land also cools more rapidly and to lower
temperatures than water.
Vocabulary
· Albedo – the fraction of total
radiation that is reflected back by a surface.
· Isotherm – a line connecting points
of equal temperature.
Chapter 6
Chapter 20
Chapter 22
Chapter 17
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