Human development: research designs, nature and nurture, genetics

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CHAPTER 8 TERMS

activity theory: theory of adjustment to aging that assumes older people are happier if they remain active in some way, such as volunteering or developing a hobby.

Adolescence: the period of life from about age 13 to the early 20s, during which a young person is no longer physically a child but is not yet an independent, self-supporting adult.

Andropause: gradual changes in the sexual hormones and reproductive system of middle-aged males.

Attachment: the emotional bond between an infant and the primary caregiver.

authoritarian parenting: style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child.

authoritative parenting: style of parenting in which parent combines warmth and affection with firm limits on a child’s behavior.

Bioethics: the study of ethical and moral issues brought about by new advances in biology and medicine.

Centration: in Piaget’s theory, the tendency of a young child to focus only on one feature of an object while ignoring other relevant features.

Chromosome: tightly wound strand of genetic material or DNA.

cognitive development: the development of thinking, problem solving, and memory.

cohort effect: the impact on development occurring when a group of people share a common time period or common life experience.

concrete operations stage: Piaget’s third stage of cognitive development, in which the school-age child becomes capable of logical thought processes but is not yet capable of abstract thinking.

Conservation: in Piaget’s theory, the ability to understand that simply changing the appearance of an object does not change the object’s nature.

conventional morality: second level of Kohlberg’s stages of moral development in which the child’s behavior is governed by conforming to the society’s norms of behavior.

critical periods: times during which certain environmental influences can have an impact on the development of the infant.

cross-sectional design: research design in which several different participant age groups are studied at one particular point in time.

cross-sequential design: research design in which participants are first studied by means of a cross-sectional design but are also followed and assessed longitudinally.

dizygotic twins: often called fraternal twins, occurring when two individual eggs get fertilized by separate sperm, resulting in two zygotes in the uterus at the same time.

dna (deoxyribonucleic acid): special molecule that contains the genetic material of the organism.

Dominant: referring to a gene that actively controls the expression of a trait.

Egocentrism: the inability to see the world through anyone else’s eyes.

ego integrity: sense of wholeness that comes from having lived a full life, possessing the ability to let go of regrets; the final completion of the ego.

Embryo: name for the developing organism from 2 to 8 weeks after fertilization.

embryonic period: the period from 2 to 8 weeks after fertilization, during which the major organs and structures of the organism develop.

emerging adulthood: a time from late adolescence through the 20s referring to those who are childless, do not live in their own home, and are not earning enough money to be independent, mainly found in developed countries.

Fertilization: the union of the ovum and sperm.

fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (fasd): the physical and mental defects caused by consumption of alcohol during pregnancy.

fetal period: the time from about 8 weeks after conception until the birth of the baby.

Fetus: name for the developing organism from 8 weeks after fertilization to the birth of the baby.

formal operations stage: Piaget’s last stage of cognitive development, in which the adolescent becomes capable of abstract thinking.

Gene: section of DNA having the same arrangement of chemical elements.

Generativity: providing guidance to one’s children or the next generation, or contributing to the well-being of the next generation through career or volunteer work.

Genetics: the science of inherited traits.

germinal period: first 2 weeks after fertilization, during which the zygote moves down to the uterus and begins to implant in the lining.

human development: the scientific study of the changes that occur in people as they age from conception until death.

identity versus role confusion: stage of personality development in which the adolescent must find a consistent sense of self.

imaginary audience: type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe that other people are just as concerned about the adolescent’s thoughts and characteristics as they themselves are.

Intimacy: an emotional and psychological closeness that is based on the ability to trust, share, and care, while still maintaining a sense of self.

Irreversibility: in Piaget’s theory, the inability of the young child to mentally reverse an action.

longitudinal design: research design in which one participant or group of participants is studied over a long period of time.

Menopause: the cessation of ovulation and menstrual cycles and the end of a woman’s reproductive capability.

monozygotic twins: identical twins formed when one zygote splits into two separate masses of cells, each of which develops into a separate embryo.

Nature: the influence of our inherited characteristics on our personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions.

Nurture: the influence of the environment on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions.

object permanence: the knowledge that an object exists even when it is not in sight.

Ovum: the female sex cell, or egg.

permissive indulgent: permissive parenting in which parent is so involved that children are allowed to behave without set limits.

permissive neglectful: permissive parenting in which parent is uninvolved with child or child’s behavior.

permissive parenting: style of parenting in which parent makes few, if any, demands on a child’s behavior.

personal fable: type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm.

postconventional morality: third level of Kohlberg’s stages of moral development in which the person’s behavior is governed by moral principles that have been decided on by the individual and that may be in disagreement with accepted social norms.

preconventional morality: first level of Kohlberg’s stages of moral development, in which the child’s behavior is governed by the consequences of the behavior.

preoperational stage: Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development, in which the preschool child learns to use language as a means of exploring the world.

Puberty: the physical changes that occur in the body as sexual development reaches its peak.

Recessive: referring to a gene that only influences the expression of a trait when paired with an identical gene.

Scaffolding: process in which a more skilled learner gives help to a less skilled learner, reducing the amount of help as the less skilled learner becomes more capable.

Scheme: in this case, a mental concept formed through experiences with objects and events.

self-concept: the image of oneself that develops from interactions with important significant people in one’s life.

sensorimotor stage: Piaget’s first stage of cognitive development, in which the infant uses its senses and motor abilities to interact with objects in the environment.

Temperament: the behavioral characteristics that are fairly well established at birth, such as “easy,” “difficult,” and “slow to warm up”; the enduring characteristics with which each person is born.

Teratogen: any factor that can cause a birth defect.

zone of proximal development (zpd): Vygotsky’s concept of the difference between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher.

Zygote: cell resulting from the uniting of the ovum and sperm.

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Studying Human Development

Concept Map 8.1-8.3

Research Designs

longitudinal: one group of people is followed and assessed at different times as they age

cross-sectional: several different age-groups are studied at one time

cross-sequential: combination of longitudinal and cross-sectional

nature and nurture

nature refers to heredity and the influence of inherited characteristics on personality, growth, intellect, social skills, etc.; behavioral genetics is relatively new field that attempts to identify genetic basis of behavior

nurture refers to influence of the environment on inherited

traits including parenting styles, socioeconomic status,

physical surroundings, etc.

most developmental psychologists agree that the most likely

explanation for most human development is based on the interaction between nature and nurture

Basic Building Blocks of Development

DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): contains genetic codes and chromosomes

aside from egg and sperm, humans have 46 chromosomes in each cell of the body

individual gets 23 chromosomes from mother's egg and 23 from father's sperm

most characteristics are determined by 22 such pairs (autosomes); the last pair determines sex of the person (sex chromosomes)

genetics is the science of heredity

both dominant and recessive genes determine physical and behavioral traits

specific physical and behavioral traits are dependent upon pairing of genes; more active genes are dominant, others are recessive (see Figure 8.2)

most traits are polygenetic

genetic and chromosome problems can cause a variety of disorders

genetic disorders carried by recessive genes are expressed when a child gets two recessive genes

issue may also occur if chromosomes have an extra or a missing pair

from conception to birth of the baby is approximately 9 months in humans