Quiz
Nervous System
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Questions in this quiz (67)
1The central nervous system (CNS) is made up of the [blank_start]brain[blank_end] and [blank_start]spinal cord[blank_end].
- Abrain
- Bspinal cord
2The peripheral nervous system ([blank_start]PNS[blank_end]) is made up of [blank_start]peripheral nerves[blank_end].
- APNS
- Bperipheral nerves
3Neurons are cells specialised for [blank_start]transmitting[blank_end] information. There [blank_start]is/are many different type(s)[blank_end] for all the different type of information.
- Atransmitting
- Breceiving
- Cinterpreting
- Dtranslating
- Eis only one type
- Fare many different types
- Gare two different types
4Glial cells [blank_start]support neurons[blank_end]. There are [blank_start]5[blank_end] different types. Each type has a specific function.
- Asupport neurons
- B5
5Astrocytes [blank_start]supply nutrients to neurons[blank_end], [blank_start]ensheath blood capillaries[blank_end] and [blank_start]transmit information[blank_end]. Microglia [blank_start]are the immune cells of the CNS[blank_end]. They [blank_start]engulf microorganisms and debris[blank_end]. Ependymal cells [blank_start]line fluid-filled spaces[blank_end] of brain and spinal cord and [blank_start]have cilia to circulate CSF[blank_end]. Oligodendrocytes [blank_start]support nerve fibres[blank_end] and [blank_start]ensheath them with myelin[blank_end]. Schwann cells [blank_start]are in the PNS[blank_end], [blank_start]support peripheral nerve fibres[blank_end] and ensheath them with myelin.
- Asupply nutrients to neurons
- Btransmit information
- Censheath blood capillaries
- Dare the immune cells of the CNS
- Eengulf microorganisms and debris
- Fhave cilia to circulate CSF
- Gline fluid-filled spaces
- Hsupport nerve fibres
- Iensheath them with myelin
- Jare in the PNS
- Ksupport peripheral nerve fibres
6Myelinated axons have a [blank_start]myelin sheath[blank_end] made of [blank_start]lipid[blank_end] wrapped around the axon. Gaps in between the myeline are called [blank_start]Nodes of Ranvier[blank_end] and these [blank_start]increase conduction by allowing[blank_end] action potentials [blank_start]to jump between them[blank_end].
- Amyelin sheath
- Bmyelin striation
- Cmyelin nodes
- Dmyelincytes
- Elipid
- Fprotein
- Gcomplex sugars
- Hnitrogenous bases
- INodes of Ranvier
- JMyelin Nodes
- KConduction Stations
- LAxon Hillocks
- Mincrease conduction by allowing
- Ndecrease conduction by stopping
- Oincrease conduction by stopping
- Pdecrease conduction by allowing
- Qto jump between them
- Rslowing down over time
- Sas they transmit down the axon
- Tto flow out of the axon
7Label the components of the pre and post-synaptic neurons.
- Apre-synaptic neuron
- Bsynaptic vesicles
- Cpost-synaptic neuron
- Dsynaptic cleft
- Eelectrical signal
- Fchemical signal
- Gaxon
- Hneurotransmitter receptors
- Ineurotransmitter
- Jaction potential
- Kaxon terminal
- Ldendrite
8[blank_start]Afferent[blank_end] information goes from the periphery to the brain through the dorsal root of the spinal cord. [blank_start]Efferent[blank_end] information goes from the brain to the periphery through the ventral root of the spinal cord. [blank_start]Autonomic[blank_end]: unaware and involuntary. [blank_start]Somatic[blank_end]: aware and voluntary. The [blank_start]autonomic efferent[blank_end] has two divisions: sympathetic - [blank_start]fight/flight[blank_end] and parasympathetic - [blank_start]rest/digest[blank_end].
- AAfferent
- BEfferent
- CAutonomic
- DSomatic
- EEfferent
- FAfferent
- GAutonomic
- HSomatic
- IAutonomic
- JSomatic
- KAfferent
- LEfferent
- MSomatic
- NAutonomic
- OAfferent
- PEfferent
- Qautonomic efferent
- Rautonomic afferent
- Ssomatic efferent
- Tsomatic afferent
- Ufight/flight
- Vrest/digest
- Wstop/drop
- Xweep/sleep
- Yrest/digest
- Zfight/flight
- AAweep/sleep
- ABstop/drop
9In the central nervous system, a group of cell bodies is [blank_start]a nucleus[blank_end] and a bundle of axons is [blank_start]an axon[blank_end]. In the cerebral cortex, a group of cell bodies is [blank_start]grey matter[blank_end] and a bundle of axons is [blank_start]white matter[blank_end]. In the peripheral nervous system, a group of cell bodies is [blank_start]a ganglion[blank_end] and a bundle of axons is [blank_start]a nerve[blank_end].
- Aa nucleus
- Ba tract
- Cgrey matter
- Dwhite matter
- Ea ganglion
- Fa nerve
10In the somatic motor division, there is one neuron between the CNS and effector. The cell body is in the [blank_start]spinal cord[blank_end], the axon is in the [blank_start]spinal nerves[blank_end], it synapses at a [blank_start]neuromuscular[blank_end] junction and the effector is a [blank_start]skeletal muscle fibre[blank_end].
- Aspinal cord
- Bsympathetic chain ganglia
- Cmotor unit
- Dsomatic ganglion
- Espinal nerves
- Fcentral nervous system
- Gafferent division
- Hmusculoneurons
- Ineuromuscular
- Jmuscular ganglion
- Kmotor unit
- Lpost-synaptic neuron
- Mskeletal muscle fibre
- Ncardiac muscle fibre
- Osmooth muscle fibre
- Ptendon
- Qcalcium channel
11The sympathetic system is responsible for preparing the body for [blank_start]acute, stressful[blank_end] situations. Effects include: [blank_start]increasing[blank_end] heart-rate, [blank_start]reducing[blank_end] blood flow to skin and viscera, [blank_start]increasing[blank_end] blood flow to muscles, [blank_start]decreasing[blank_end] gastric motility, [blank_start]decreasing[blank_end] salivation, [blank_start]increasing[blank_end] pupil size, [blank_start]increasing[blank_end] sweating. There are two neurons. The first neuron is [blank_start]short[blank_end], [blank_start]myelinated[blank_end] and uses [blank_start]acetylcholine[blank_end]. The sympathetic ganglion is in the sympathetic chain ganglia, close to the [blank_start]CNS[blank_end]. The second neuron is [blank_start]long[blank_end], [blank_start]unmyelinated[blank_end] and uses [blank_start]norepinephrine/noradrenaline[blank_end].
- Aacute, stressful
- Brestful
- Cnice, calming
- Dsympathetic
- Eincreasing
- Fdecreasing
- Gno change to
- Hdecreasing
- Iincreasing
- Jno change to
- Kincreasing
- Ldecreasing
- Mno change to
- Ndecreasing
- Oincreasing
- Pno change to
- Qdecreasing
- Rincreasing
- Sno change to
- Tincreasing
- Udecreasing
- Vno change to
- Wincreasing
- Xdecreasing
- Yno change to
- Zshort
- AAlong
- ABaverage sized
- ACnarrow
- ADwide
- AEmyelinated
- AFunmyelinated
- AGacetylcholine
- AHnorepinephrine/noradrenaline
- AICNS
- AJeffector
- AKskin surface
- ALheart
- AMlong
- ANshort
- AOaverage sized
- APwide
- AQnarrow
- ARunmyelinated
- ASmyelinated
- ATnorepinephrine/noradrenaline
- AUacetylcholine
12The parasympathetic system is responsible for preparing the body for [blank_start]restful[blank_end] situations. Effects include: [blank_start]decreasing[blank_end] heart-rate, [blank_start]increasing[blank_end] gastric motility, [blank_start]increasing[blank_end] salivation, [blank_start]decreasing[blank_end] pupil size. There are two neurons. The first neuron is [blank_start]long[blank_end], [blank_start]myelinated[blank_end] and uses [blank_start]acetylcholine[blank_end]. The parasympathetic ganglion is close to the [blank_start]effector[blank_end]. The second neuron is [blank_start]short[blank_end], [blank_start]unmyelinated[blank_end] and uses [blank_start]acetylcholine[blank_end].
- Arestful
- Bacute, stressful
- Cfrightening
- Dangry
- Eactive
- Fdecreasing
- Gincreasing
- Hno change to
- Iincreasing
- Jdecreasing
- Kno change to
- Lincreasing
- Mdecreasing
- Nno change to
- Odecreasing
- Pincreasing
- Qno change to
- Rlong
- Sshort
- Taverage sized
- Uwide
- Vnarrow
- Wmyelinated
- Xunmyelinated
- Yacetylcholine
- Znorepinephrine/noradrenaline
- AAeffector
- ABCNS
- ACspinal cord
- ADsympathetic chain
- AEshort
- AFlong
- AGaverage sized
- AHwide
- AInarrow
- AJunmyelinated
- AKmyelinated
- ALacetylcholine
- AMnorepinephrine/noradrenaline
13The spinal cord starts at the [blank_start]foramen magnum[blank_end], the opening at the base of the skull and ends at the inferior border of [blank_start]1st lumbar vertebra[blank_end] . The spinal cord is contained within [blank_start]a meningeal sack filled with fluid[blank_end] that fits inside the spinal cavity within [blank_start]the vertebrae[blank_end]. The end is called the [blank_start]conus medularis[blank_end]. From here, the [blank_start]filum terminale[blank_end], an extension of the meninges extends the end of the spinal cavity to anchor the spinal cord. Spinal nerves that exit at levels below the spinal cord make up the [blank_start]cauda equina[blank_end].
- Aforamen magnum
- Bconus medularis
- Cfilum terminale
- Dcauda equina
- EL1
- Fthe thoracic vertebrae
- Gthe lumbar vertebrae
- Hthe sacrum
- IL3
- Ja meningeal sack filled with fluid
- Kthe cauda equina
- Lthe dorsal root
- Mthe efferent tract
- Nthe vertebrae
- Othe conus medularis
- Pthe coccyx
- Qthe anterior median fissure
- Rconus medularis
- Sforamen magnum
- Tcoccyx
- Ufilum terminale
- Vfilum terminale
- Wforamen magnum
- Xcauda equina
- Ymeningeal tail
- Zcauda equina
- AAconus medularis
- ABinferior nerves
- AClumbar nerves
- ADlower motor neurons
14Spinal nerves are called [blank_start]mixed[blank_end] nerves because information flows in [blank_start]two[blank_end] directions. After they leave the spinal cord, they break into two branches: [blank_start]ventral and dorsal ramus[blank_end]. The [blank_start]ventral ramus[blank_end] communicates with the [blank_start]sympathetic chain[blank_end] via two [blank_start]sympathetic rami[blank_end].
- Amixed
- Btwo
- Cventral and dorsal ramus
- Dventral ramus
- Esympathetic chain
- Fsympathetic rami
15Individual [blank_start]axons[blank_end] may be myelinated or unmyelinated. Axons are covered with [blank_start]endoneurium[blank_end]. These nerve fibres are then bundled together to form a [blank_start]fascicle[blank_end] which is covered with [blank_start]perineurium[blank_end]. These are then bundled together with blood vessels to form a [blank_start]nerve[blank_end] (or tract) which is covered by [blank_start]epineurium[blank_end].
- Aaxons
- Bendoneurium
- Cfascicle
- Dperineurium
- Enerve
- Fepineurium
16Label the skull
- Aparietal
- Btemporal
- Coccipital
- Dfrontal
- Esphenoid
- Fcoronal suture
- Glambdoidal suture
- Hsquamous suture
- Isagittal suture
- Jzygomatic
- Kmaxillary
- Lmandible
- Mnasal
- Nethmoid
17The [blank_start]dura mater[blank_end] is the outermost layer of meninges. It is [blank_start]dense and fibrous[blank_end] and made up of two layers. The inner layer forms the [blank_start]dural reflections[blank_end] and the space between the layers forms [blank_start]venous sinuses[blank_end]. The [blank_start]arachnoid mater[blank_end] is the next layer and contains [blank_start]blood vessels[blank_end]. Below this layer is the [blank_start]subarachnoid space[blank_end] which is filled with [blank_start]CSF[blank_end]. [blank_start]Arachnoid granulations[blank_end] perforate the dura to transport [blank_start]old CSF[blank_end]. The innermost layer is [blank_start]pia mater[blank_end] which is [blank_start]transparent and delicate[blank_end]. Blood vessels sit on top. It [blank_start]adheres[blank_end] to brain and follows gyri and sulci in the brain. The meninges also extend down the spinal cord.
- Adura mater
- Bdense and fibrous
- Cdural reflections
- Dvenous sinuses
- Earachnoid mater
- Fblood vessels
- Gsubarachnoid space
- HCSF
- IArachnoid granulations
- Jold CSF
- Kpia mater
- Ltransparent and delicate
- Madheres
18The ventricular system is a network of interconnected spaces within the brain. It is filled with [blank_start]CSF[blank_end], which nourishes and protects the brain. It is produced by the [blank_start]choroid plexus[blank_end], which lines the [blank_start]ventricles[blank_end]. It then circulates through ventricles and subarachnoid space of the [blank_start]brain and spinal cord[blank_end].
Route: [blank_start]Lateral ventricle[blank_end] → [blank_start]3rd ventricle[blank_end] → [blank_start]cerebral aqueduct[blank_end]
→ [blank_start]4th ventricle[blank_end] → [blank_start]subarachnoid space[blank_end]. Finally it enters venous blood circulation within the [blank_start]venous sinuses[blank_end] via [blank_start]arachnoid villi/granulations[blank_end].- ACSF
- Bchoroid plexus
- Clateral ventricle
- D3rd ventricle
- Ecerebral aqueduct
- F4th ventricle
- Gsubarachnoid space
- Hvenous sinuses
- Iarachnoid villi/granulations
- Jventricles
- Kbrain and spinal cord
19[blank_start]Hydrocephalus[blank_end] is caused by abnormal accumulation of [blank_start]CSF[blank_end] in the ventricles of the brain. It leads to [blank_start]increased[blank_end] intracranial pressure inside the skull and progressive [blank_start]enlargement[blank_end] of the head. Other symptoms include: [blank_start]convulsion[blank_end], [blank_start]tunnel vision[blank_end] and [blank_start]mental disability[blank_end].
- AHydrocephalus
- BEncephalus
- CHypocephalus
- DHypercephalus
- ECSF
- Fblood
- Gwater
- Hair bubbles
- Iincreased
- Jdecreased
- Kenlargement
- Lclefting
- Mblistering
- Nmovement
- Oconvulsion
- Pbulging eyes
- Qrash
- Rbrain freeze
- Stunnel vision
- Tdouble vision
- Ublindness
- Vcolour blindness
- Wmental disability
- Xincreased IQ
- Ysocial disfunction
- Zspeech and language difficulties
20The frontal lobe is divided into the [blank_start]motor[blank_end] cortex and the [blank_start]pre-frontal[blank_end] cortex. The [blank_start]pre-central gyrus[blank_end] is the [blank_start]primary motor cortex[blank_end] and is responsible for [blank_start]execution of movement[blank_end]. The pre-motor cortex is responsible for [blank_start]planning of movement[blank_end]. The [blank_start]prefrontal cortex[blank_end] is responsible for [blank_start]decision making, consequences, emotion[blank_end]. The parietal lobe manages [blank_start]sensory information[blank_end]. The [blank_start]post-central gyrus[blank_end] is the [blank_start]primary somatosensory cortex[blank_end]. The temporal lobe manages [blank_start]hearing and memory[blank_end] and the occipital lobe is responsible for [blank_start]vision[blank_end].
- Amotor
- Bpre-frontal
- Cprimary motor cortex
- Dpre-central gyrus
- Eexecution of movement
- Fplanning of movement
- Gprefrontal cortex
- Hdecision making, consequences, emotion
- Isensory information
- Jpost-central gyrus
- Kprimary somatosensory cortex
- Lhearing and memory
- Mvision
21The [blank_start]cerebellum[blank_end] provides integration between the sensory and motor systems. The [blank_start]motor cortex[blank_end] initiates movement and sends a copy of the instructions. [blank_start]Sensory information[blank_end] comes back. The [blank_start]cerebellum[blank_end] compares the [blank_start]feedback[blank_end] with the copy of [blank_start]motor output[blank_end] and adjusts if necessary → coordinates [blank_start]planned movement[blank_end] guided by [blank_start]sensory feedback[blank_end].
- Acerebellum
- Bmedulla oblongata
- Csomatosensory cortex
- Dintegration cortex
- Emotor cortex
- Fmotor programmes
- Gpre-frontal cortex
- Hcerebellum
- ISensory information
- JThe motor programme
- KAutonomic motor function
- LIntegrated information
- Mcerebellum
- Nsomatosensory cortex
- Omotor sensory compartment
- Pthalamus
- Qfeedback
- Rmemory
- Stemperature
- Tsummation
- Umotor output
- Vmotor input
- Wco-ordination plan
- Xpre-motor planning
- Yplanned movement
- Zspontaneous movement
- AAautomatic movement
- ABreflex movement
- ACsensory feedback
- ADtemporal information
- AEsomatosensory integration
- AFassociation
22Label the brain
- Aassociation tracts
- Bgrey matter
- Cwhite matter
- Dprojection tracts
- Edecussation
- Fmedulla oblongata
- Gpons
- Hcommissural tracts
- Ilateral ventricle
- Jthalamus
- K3rd ventricle
- Lcaudate
- Mputamen
- Nglobus pallidus
- Osubthalamic nucleus
- Pred nucleus
- Qsubstantia nigra
- RTentorium cerebelli
- SFalx cerebri
23Label the pathways
- AAscending
- BDescending
- CPyramidal pathway
- DExtrapyramidal pathway
- ELateral spinothalmic pathway
- FMedial lemniscal pathway
- Gtouch/propioception receptors
- Hpain/temperature receptor
- Idecussation at medulla
- Jdecussation at spinal cord
- Kdorsal root ganglion
- Lsynapse at thalamus
- Msomatic sensory area
- Nmidbrain
- Olateral reticulospinal origin
- Pred nucleus
- Qprimary sensory neuron
- Rsecondary sensory neuron
- Stertiary sensory neuron
- Tdorsal root
- Umedial lemniscus
- Vantero-lateral spinal cord
- Wsomatic motor cortex
- Xupper motor neuron
- Ylower motor neuron
- Zneuromuscular junction
- AArubrospinal tract
- ABReticulospinal tract
- ACdecussation at pyramid
- ADmedial reticulospinal origin
24The Basal Ganglia:
- Aconsists of a collection of 5 nuclei
- Bis in a brain circuit that also involves other structures
- Cselects an appropriate movement for a given situation
- Dinitiates movement
- Eterminates movement
- Finhibits movement
- Gcreates movement plans
- Hreceives feedback on movement
- Iis a pair of nuclei in the brainstem
- Jis the origin of motor neurons
25The cell stores charge across its membrane. The lipid bilayer is [blank_start]an insulator to prevent[blank_end] the free flow of ions. The distribution of ions creates the electricity, a [blank_start]charge difference[blank_end] between the two sides of membrane, the called the [blank_start]membrane potential[blank_end]. In living neurons it is about [blank_start]-70 mV, slightly negative inside[blank_end]. This [blank_start]varies[blank_end] over time. Ions can flow [blank_start]if channels open[blank_end]. Channels are selective. At Resting Membrane Potential most Na+ channels are [blank_start]closed[blank_end], some K+ channels are [blank_start]open[blank_end]. [blank_start]Sodium-Potassium pumps[blank_end] help maintain this potential, shifting [blank_start]3 Na+ out and 2 K+[blank_end] in using ATP for energy.
- Aan insulator to prevent
- Ba conductor to allow
- Cion phobic to prevent
- Dhydrophillic to allow
- Echarge difference
- Fmovement of charges
- Gsummation of action potentials
- Hion gradient
- Imembrane potential
- Jmembrane threshold
- Kmembrane charge
- Lhyper polarisation
- M-70 mV, slightly negative inside
- N-70 mV, slightly negative outside
- O+30 mV, slightly positive inside
- P+30 mV, slightly positive outside
- Q-59 mV, slightly negative inside
- R-59 mV, slightly negative outside
- Svaries
- Tis constant
- Uif channels open
- Vwhen threshold is reached
- Wwhen the charge is negative
- Xbecause the membrane is permeable
- Yclosed
- Zopen
- AAopen
- ABclosed
- ACSodium-Potassium pumps
- ADIon channels
- AEThe ion concentration gradient
- AFThe Resting Membrane Potential
- AG3 Na+ out and 2 K+
- AH2 Na+ out and 3 K+ in
- AI3 Na+ in and 2 K+ out
- AJ2 Na+ in and 3 K+ out
26The resting membrane potential is [blank_start]-70mV[blank_end], this is [blank_start]polarised[blank_end]. Local potentials can be [blank_start]excitatory[blank_end] moving toward the threshold or [blank_start]inhibitory[blank_end] moving away from the threshold. The minimum threshold to trigger an action potential is [blank_start]-59mV[blank_end]. The temporary max [blank_start]depolarisation[blank_end] is when the potential is [blank_start]+30mV[blank_end]. The cell is then [blank_start]repolarised[blank_end] by opening [blank_start]K+ channels[blank_end] which can cause it to be briefly [blank_start]hyperpolarised[blank_end], which means more [blank_start]negative[blank_end] than the RMP.
- A-70mV
- B-59mV
- C+30mV
- D0mV
- Epolarised
- Fhyperpolarised
- Gdepolarised
- Hneutral
- Iexcitatory
- Jinhibitory
- Kinhibitory
- Lexcitatory
- M-59mV
- N0
- O+30mV
- P+50mV
- Q+30mV
- R+100mV
- S0mV
- T+59mV
- Udepolarisation
- Vpolarisation
- Wneutralisation
- Xrepolarised
- Ypolarised
- Zdepolarised
- AAneutralised
- ABK+ channels
- ACNa+ channels
- ADCa2+ channels
- AECl- channels
- AFhyperpolarised
- AGhypopolarised
- AHcatonised
- AInegative
- AJpositive
- AKneutral
27The [blank_start]input zone[blank_end] of a neuron is made up of [blank_start]dendrites[blank_end] and [blank_start]the cell body[blank_end]. It receives [blank_start]chemical signals[blank_end] from other neurons. Local potentials add up either spatially ([blank_start]lots of neurons[blank_end]) or temporally ([blank_start]lots of signals from a neuron[blank_end]). The [blank_start]summation zone[blank_end] is [blank_start]the axon hillock[blank_end] which [blank_start]decides whether to transmit[blank_end] information further i.e. if the local potentials reach threshold. The [blank_start]conduction zone[blank_end] is the axon, this can be quite long. It carries [blank_start]electric signals[blank_end] or action potentials. The [blank_start]output zone[blank_end] is [blank_start]the axon terminals[blank_end], normally synapsing with [blank_start]the input of another neuron[blank_end], sometimes [blank_start]a neuromuscular junction[blank_end]. It releases [blank_start]neurotransmitters[blank_end].
- Ainput zone
- Bdendrites
- Cthe cell body
- Dchemical signals
- Elots of neurons
- Flots of signals from a neuron
- Gsummation zone
- Hthe axon hillock
- Idecides whether to transmit
- Jstops transmitting
- Ktransmits
- Lconduction zone
- Melectric signals
- Noutput zone
- Othe axon terminals
- Pthe input of another neuron
- Qa neuromuscular junction
- Rneurotransmitters
- Saction potentials
28The process of synaptic transmission:
1. [blank_start]Action potential reaches axon terminal[blank_end]
2. [blank_start]Pre-synaptic bouton is depolarised[blank_end]
3. [blank_start]Voltage gated Ca2+ channels open[blank_end]
4. [blank_start]This triggers Neurotransmitter release[blank_end]
5. [blank_start]Neurotransmitter crosses synaptic cleft[blank_end]
6. [blank_start]Neurotransmitter binds to receptor[blank_end]
7. [blank_start]Na+ channels open[blank_end]
8. [blank_start]LOCAL depolarisation post-synaptic cell[blank_end]
9. [blank_start]Repolarised - EPSP[blank_end]- AAction potential reaches axon terminal
- BPre-synaptic bouton is depolarised
- CVoltage gated Ca2+ channels open
- DThis triggers Neurotransmitter release
- ENeurotransmitter crosses synaptic cleft
- FNeurotransmitter binds to receptor
- GNa+ channels open
- HLOCAL depolarisation post-synaptic cell
- IRepolarised - EPSP
29Pre synaptic cell must contain:
- Aaxon terminal or bouton
- Bvesicles
- Ccytoskeleton
- Dmitochondria
- Evoltage-gated Ca2+ channels
- Fneurotransmitter receptors
- Gdendrites
- Hthick membrane
- Istimulus gated Na+ channels
- Jsarcolemma
30[blank_start]Depolarisation[blank_end] during the action potential causes adjacent [blank_start]voltage-gated Na+[blank_end] channels to open. This spreads the action potential [blank_start]along[blank_end] the axon like a Mexican wave.
- ADepolarisation
- Bvoltage-gated Na+
- Calong
31During the absolute refractory period, the cell is [blank_start]rapidly depolarising[blank_end] and another action potential [blank_start]will not be able to[blank_end] occur, [blank_start]no matter how large the stimulus[blank_end]. During the relative refractory period, the cell is [blank_start]repolarising[blank_end]. A normal sized stimulus [blank_start]will not[blank_end] trigger an action potential but another action potential [blank_start]can[blank_end] initiate [blank_start]if there is a large enough stimulus[blank_end]. The frequency of action potentials depends upon [blank_start]how quickly another action potential[blank_end] [blank_start]can pass down the same nerve[blank_end]. Action potentials can only travel in [blank_start]one direction[blank_end].
- Arapidly depolarising
- Brapidly polarising
- Chyperpolarised
- Dneutral
- Ewill not be able to
- Fwill be able to
- Gwill always
- Hwill sometimes
- Ino matter how large the stimulus
- Jwith a large enough stimulus
- Kif there are many stimuli
- Lif the stimulus has high frequency
- Mrepolarising
- Ndepolarising
- Oneutral
- Phyperpolarised
- Qwill not
- Rwill always
- Scan
- Tif there is a large enough stimulus
- Uif there are enough stimuli
- Vif the stimulus has high frequency
- Wno matter how large the stimulus
- Xcan
- Ycannot
- Zwill sometimes
- AAwill never
- ABhow quickly another action potential
- AChow small the action potential
- ADhow large the action potential
- AEhow many action potentials
- AFcan pass down the same nerve
- AGcan summate at the axon hillock
- AHcan travel through the Nodes of Ranvier
- AIcan trigger Ca2+ channels
- AJone direction
- AKnsync
- ALbackstreet boys
- AMwestlife
32Axons are like [blank_start]electric[blank_end] wires. Two ways to improve conduction speed:
1. Insulation of the axon. S[blank_start]chwann cells[blank_end] or o[blank_start]ligodendrocytes[blank_end] wrap the axon with a [blank_start]myelin sheath[blank_end].
2. The [blank_start]action potential[blank_end] can jump between [blank_start]Nodes of Ranvier[blank_end] (gaps between Myelin). This is called [blank_start]saltatory[blank_end] conduction.- Achwann cells
- Bligodendrocytes
- Celectric
- Dmyelin sheath
- Eaction potential
- FNodes of Ranvier
- Gsaltatory
33Metamphetamine ℗:
[blank_start]Increases[blank_end] levels of [blank_start]noradrenaline, dopamine and serotonin[blank_end].
Stimulates [blank_start]fight/flight[blank_end] response.
Stimulates [blank_start]reward centres[blank_end], [blank_start]highly[blank_end] addictive.
[blank_start]Highly Neurotoxic[blank_end].- AIncreases
- BDecreases
- Cnoradrenaline, dopamine and serotonin
- Dnoradrenaline, glutamate and GABA
- Eglutamate, serotonin and acetylcholine
- Fdopamine, glutamate and acetylcholine
- Gfight/flight
- Hrest/digest
- Idance/dance
- Jhigh/die
- Kreward centres
- Lneurotransmitter receptors
- Mdopamine channels
- Naction potentials
- Ohighly
- Pnot really
- Qnot at all
- Rcan be slightly
- SHighly Neurotoxic
- TTotally harmless in small doses
- UTotally harmless in large doses
- VNeurotoxic only in pregnant women
34Neurons form networks through which [blank_start]electrical signals[blank_end] travel. Each neuron connects with [blank_start]multiple cells[blank_end] and receives [blank_start]multiple inputs[blank_end]. These [blank_start]electrical signals[blank_end] may be excitatory or inhibitory, and if the total sum of incoming signals is [blank_start]excitatory[blank_end], the postsynaptic neuron will generate a new [blank_start]action potential[blank_end] at its axon hillock. Synapses may occur via direct contact between cells or [blank_start]gap junctions[blank_end], as in an [blank_start]electrical synapse[blank_end], but most commonly involve release of [blank_start]neurotransmitters[blank_end] across the [blank_start]synaptic cleft[blank_end] between two cells, as in a [blank_start]chemical synapse[blank_end]. In order for an action potential to be generated, the [blank_start]postsynaptic membrane[blank_end] needs to be [blank_start]depolarised i.e. more positive than[blank_end] the RMP. An excitatory synapse is one which [blank_start]increases[blank_end] the probability of an action potential occurring in a postsynaptic cell i.e. makes it more [blank_start]positive[blank_end]. An inhibitory synapse makes a postsynaptic neuron [blank_start]less likely[blank_end] to generate an action potential i.e. more [blank_start]negative[blank_end].
- Aelectrical signals
- Bchemical signals
- Chormonal signals
- Dnervous signals
- Emultiple cells
- Fone cell
- Gtwo cells
- Ha neuromuscular junction
- Imultiple inputs
- Jinput from the brain
- Ka singular source of input
- Lchemical input
- Melectrical signals
- Nchemical signals
- Ohormonal signals
- Pnervous signals
- Qexcitatory
- Rinhibitory
- Sneutral i.e. 0
- Taction potential
- Uchemical signal
- Vhillock signal
- Waxon propagation
- Xgap junctions
- Ydesmosomes
- Ztight junctions
- AAsynaptic clefts
- ABelectrical synapse
- ACchemical synapse
- ADdirect synapse
- AEcontact synapse
- AFneurotransmitters
- AGaction potentials
- AHions
- AIelectric charge
- AJsynaptic cleft
- AKintercellular membrane
- ALgap junction
- AMNodes of Ranvier
- ANchemical synapse
- AOelectrical synapse
- APindirect synapse
- AQcleft synapse
- ARpostsynaptic membrane
- ASneurotransmitter receptors
- ATaxon hillock
- AUpostsynaptic electric junction
- AVdepolarised i.e. more positive than
- AWhyperpolarised i.e. more negative than
- AXexactly equal to
- AYthe same size but opposite charge as
- AZincreases
- BAdecreases
- BBexcites
- BCdoes not change
- BDpositive
- BEnegative
- BFneutral
- BGequal to the RMP
- BHless likely
- BIunable to
- BJable to
- BKmore likely
- BLnegative
- BMpositive
- BNneutral
- BOequal to the RMP
35What is the correct grouping of neurotransmitters?
- AExcitatory: Acetylcholine for nerve – muscle (somatic) and nerve – gland (autonomic). Glutamate in the brain.
Inhibitory: GABA – gamma amino butyric acid - BExcitatory: Glutamate (somatic) and Noradrenaline (autonomic).
Inhibitory: Acetylcholine for nerve – muscle (somatic) and nerve – gland (autonomic). GABA in the brain. - CExcitatory: Acetylcholine for nerve – muscle (somatic) and nerve – gland (autonomic).
Inhibitory: GABA – gamma amino butyric acid in PNS, Glutamate in the brain. - DExcitatory: Acetylcholine for nerve – muscle (somatic) and nerve – gland (autonomic). GABA in the brain.
Inhibitory: Glutamate - EExcitatory: Acetylcholine for nerve – muscle (somatic). Noradrenaline nerve – gland (autonomic). Glutamate in the brain.
Inhibitory: GABA – gamma amino butyric acid
- AExcitatory: Acetylcholine for nerve – muscle (somatic) and nerve – gland (autonomic). Glutamate in the brain.
36How is a synapse switched off?
1. Excess transmitter is released into the cleft. e.g. ACh at NMJ
2. Excess transmitter must be removed
Degradation – [blank_start]enzymic[blank_end]
Reuptake into [blank_start]the bouton[blank_end]
Reuptake into [blank_start]glia[blank_end]
Removal requires [blank_start]ATP for energy[blank_end]. This is supplied by [blank_start]Mitochondria in bouton[blank_end].- Aenzymic
- Bchemical
- Celectrical
- Dhydrolysed
- Elysosomic
- Fglia
- Gdendrites
- Hvesicles
- Ireceptors
- Jgap junctions
- Kneurotransmitter channels
- Lthe bouton
- MATP for energy
- Na concentration gradient
- Oelectrical energy
- PMitochondria in bouton
37Information from a single origin may [blank_start]diverge[blank_end] to multiple outputs.
This provides:
1. [blank_start]Opportunity to amplify signals[blank_end]
2. [blank_start]Control points[blank_end]
3. [blank_start]Spread of information[blank_end]
e.g. a single sensory organ may [blank_start]diverge[blank_end] to communicate with different brain regions
Information from different regions may [blank_start]converge[blank_end] on a single output.
This provides:
1. [blank_start]Redundancy in case one component fails[blank_end]
2. [blank_start]Control points[blank_end]
3. [blank_start]Wide range of input[blank_end]
e.g. multiple brain regions [blank_start]converge[blank_end] to communicate with a single motor neuron that excites a single muscle group- AOpportunity to amplify signals
- BRedundancy in case one component fails
- CWide range of input
- DHigh frequency output
- EControl points
- FChange stations
- GSignal changes
- HSpread of information
- IWide range of input
- JIntensity of information
- KDiversity of information
- Ldiverge
- Mconverge
- Nmultiply
- Odivide
- Psummate
- Qdiverge
- Rconverge
- Smultiply
- Tdivide
- Usummate
- Vconverge
- Wdiverge
- Xdivide
- Ymultiply
- Zsummate
- AARedundancy in case one component fails
- ABOpportunity to amplify signals
- ACHigh frequency output
- ADSpread of information
- AEControl points
- AFSignal changes
- AGChange stations
- AHWide range of input
- AISpread of information
- AJIntensity of information
- AKDiversity of information
- ALconverge
- AMdiverge
- ANmultiply
- AOdivide
- APsummate
38Label the parts of the muscle:
- Athick filament
- Bsarcomere
- Cz-disk
- Dthin filament
- Emyofibril
- FT tubule
- Gsarcoplasmic reticulum
- Hfascicle
- Iendomysium
- Jperimysium
- Kepimysium
- Lmuscle fibre
- Mmuscle
- Nfascia
- Otendon
- Pbone
39Label the spinal cord:
- ARubrospinal tract
- BCorticospinal tract
- CMedullary reticulospinal tract
- DPontoreticulospinal tract
- EAnterior median fissure
- FVentral column (white matter)
- GVentral horn (grey matter)
- HDorsal column (white matter)
- IDorsal horn (grey matter)
- JPosterior median sulcus
- KAutonomic motor neurons
- LSomatic motor neurons
- MMedial lemniscal tract
- NLateral spinothalmic tract
40Thick and thin filaments:
- AActin
- BMyosin
- Cshaft
- DMyosin head
- EThick filament
- FThin filament
- GTropomyosin
- Hactive site
- ITroponin
- JG actin molecules
411.[blank_start]Excitation[blank_end]
[blank_start]AP reaches end of motor neuron[blank_end] [blank_start]Causes Ca2+ entry into nerve terminal[blank_end] → [blank_start]Synaptic vesicles release ACh[blank_end], [blank_start]ACh diffuses into synaptic cleft[blank_end], [blank_start]Stimulates ACh receptors on muscle fibre[blank_end] → [blank_start]Depolarisation of muscle sarcolemma[blank_end] [blank_start]Initiates an action potential[blank_end] → [blank_start]AP travels over sarcolemma and T-tubules[blank_end] [blank_start]Triggers release of Ca2+ ions from SR[blank_end] → [blank_start]Ca2+ ions diffuse to the myofilaments[blank_end] [blank_start]Triggers crossbridge formation[blank_end].
2. [blank_start]Contraction[blank_end]
[blank_start]Myosin head is energised, with ATP bound[blank_end] → [blank_start]Ca2+ binds to troponin which reshapes[blank_end], [blank_start]Moves tropomyosin, exposes active sites[blank_end] → [blank_start]Myosin heads bind to active sites[blank_end], [blank_start]Forms cross bridge[blank_end] → [blank_start]Myosin pulls actin - power stroke[blank_end]
Myofibril [blank_start]shortens[blank_end], Myofilaments, actin and myosin, [blank_start]do not shorten[blank_end]
3. [blank_start]Relaxation[blank_end]
[blank_start]No new AP - sarcolemma repolarises[blank_end] → [blank_start]Ca2+ ions no longer bind to Troponin[blank_end] → [blank_start]Actin and Myosin are still bound[blank_end] but [blank_start]No new crossbridges[blank_end] → [blank_start]ATP binds Myosin, uncouples crossbridge[blank_end]- AExcitation
- BAP reaches end of motor neuron
- CCauses Ca2+ entry into nerve terminal
- DSynaptic vesicles release ACh
- EACh diffuses into synaptic cleft
- FStimulates ACh receptors on muscle fibre
- GDepolarisation of muscle sarcolemma
- HInitiates an action potential
- IAP travels over sarcolemma and T-tubules
- JTriggers release of Ca2+ ions from SR
- KCa2+ ions diffuse to the myofilaments
- LTriggers crossbridge formation
- MContraction
- NMyosin head is energised, with ATP bound
- OCa2+ binds to troponin which reshapes
- PMoves tropomyosin, exposes active sites
- QMyosin heads bind to active sites
- RForms cross bridge
- SMyosin pulls actin - power stroke
- Tshortens
- Udoes not shorten
- Vdo not shorten
- Wshorten
- XRelaxation
- YNo new AP - sarcolemma repolarises
- ZCa2+ ions no longer bind to Troponin
- AAActin and Myosin are still bound
- ABNo new crossbridges
- ACATP binds Myosin, uncouples crossbridge
42Anaerobic metabolism uses [blank_start]stored ATP, CP and glucose[blank_end] [blank_start]as energy[blank_end]. This provides [blank_start]fast, short term energy[blank_end] and [blank_start]doesn’t require oxygen[blank_end]. There [blank_start]are limited stores of ATP[blank_end] in muscle and these can provide about [blank_start]2-4s[blank_end] contraction. [blank_start]CP breakdown[blank_end] can then synthesise [blank_start]ATP[blank_end] and this provides about [blank_start]20s[blank_end] contraction. The anaerobic [blank_start]glycolysis[blank_end] of glucose leads to production of [blank_start]lactic acid[blank_end].
Aerobic metabolism uses [blank_start]oxidative phosphorylation[blank_end] [blank_start]to oxidise nutrients in food[blank_end] [blank_start]to produce ATP[blank_end]. This happens in [blank_start]mitochondria[blank_end]. This process [blank_start]requires oxygen[blank_end] and is a [blank_start]slower[blank_end] method of energy production but it does provide [blank_start]a long term, steady source of energy[blank_end].
Energy is required for [blank_start]muscles to relax[blank_end] otherwise we would suffer [blank_start]rigour mortis[blank_end].- Astored ATP, CP and glucose
- Bfor energy
- Cfast, short term energy
- Ddoesn’t require oxygen
- Eare limited stores of ATP
- F2-4s
- GCP breakdown
- HATP
- I20s
- Jglycolysis
- Klactic acid
- Loxidative phosphorylation
- Mto oxidise nutrients in food
- Nto produce ATP
- Omitochondria
- Prequires oxygen
- Qslower
- Ra long term, steady source of energy
- Smuscles to relax
- Trigor mortis
- Ustored nutrients
- Vfast, sustained energy
- Wproduces oxygen
- Xdoes not produce oxygen
- Yis constant supply of ATP
- Z5s
- AA4 mins
- AB1s
- AC1 min
- ADATP breakdown
- AEglucose breakdown
- AFare limited stores of CP
- AGis constant supply of CP
- AHCP
- AIglucose
- AJhydrolysis
- AKpyruvate acid
- ALcalcium accumulation
- AMwater
- ANoxidative glycolysis
- AOstored oxygen
- APto oxidise muscles
- AQto produce CP
- ARto produce oxygen
- ASchloroplasts
- ATthe sarcolemma
- AUt tubules
- AVfaster
- AWmuscles to contract
- AXtetanus
- AYmuscles twitches
- AZpetrificus totalus
- BAlocomotor mortis
- BBdeath
43Red muscle fibres have [blank_start]high[blank_end] levels of myoglobin and aerobic enzymes. These are [blank_start]slow[blank_end], [blank_start]myosin type I[blank_end] fibres. They have [blank_start]slow[blank_end] interaction with actin, [blank_start]slow[blank_end] force production and [blank_start]slow[blank_end] energy consumption, sustained by [blank_start]aerobic[blank_end] metabolism.
White muscle fibres have [blank_start]low[blank_end] levels of myoglobin and aerobic enzymes. These are [blank_start]fast[blank_end], [blank_start]myosin type IIx[blank_end] fibres. They have [blank_start]fast[blank_end] interaction with actin, [blank_start]fast[blank_end] force production and [blank_start]fast[blank_end] energy consumption, using [blank_start]anaerobic[blank_end] metabolism.
Intermediate muscle fibres have [blank_start]intermediate[blank_end] levels of myoglobin and aerobic enzymes. They are [blank_start]intermediate[blank_end], [blank_start]myosin type 11a[blank_end] fibres.
Oxygen binds to [blank_start]haemoglobin[blank_end] in blood and [blank_start]myoglobin[blank_end] in muscle.
These pigments are both [blank_start]red[blank_end] due to oxygen-iron (Fe) binding.- Ahigh
- Blow
- Cintermediate
- Dslow
- Efast
- Fintermediate
- Gmyosin type I
- Hmyosin type IIx
- Imyosin type IIa
- Jmyosin type II
- Kslow
- Lfast
- Mintermediate
- Nslow
- Ofast
- Pintermediate
- Qslow
- Rfast
- Sintermediate
- Taerobic
- Uanaerobic
- Vlow
- Whigh
- Xintermediate
- Yfast
- Zslow
- AAintermediate
- ABmyosin type IIx
- ACmyosin type I
- ADmyosin type II
- AEmyosin type IIa
- AFfast
- AGslow
- AHintermediate
- AIfast
- AJslow
- AKintermediate
- ALfast
- AMslow
- ANintermediate
- AOanaerobic
- APaerobic
- AQintermediate
- ARhigh
- ASlow
- ATintermediate
- AUfast
- AVslow
- AWmyosin type IIa
- AXmyosin type IIx
- AYmyosin type I
- AZmyosin type II
- BAhaemoglobin
- BBmyoglobin
- BCoxyglobin
- BDRBC
- BEmyoglobin
- BFhaemoglobin
- BGmuscuglobin
- BHsarcoglobin
- BIred
- BJwhite
- BKblue
- BLfreedom
44Depending on their [blank_start]function[blank_end], muscles are dominated by [blank_start]one fibre type or a mix of fibre types[blank_end].
Sprinters [blank_start]Need explosive power[blank_end] for a [blank_start]Short duration[blank_end]
This requires [blank_start]Anaerobic metabolism[blank_end] and, relatively, [blank_start]less oxygen[blank_end]
Muscles develop higher proportion of [blank_start]Fast and intermediate fibres[blank_end]
Endurance athletes [blank_start]Need fatigue resistance[blank_end] for a [blank_start]Longer duration[blank_end]
This uses [blank_start]aerobic metabolism[blank_end] and requires [blank_start]more oxygen[blank_end]
Leg muscles develop higher proportion of [blank_start]Slow and Intermediate fibres[blank_end]
They may also have adaptations for [blank_start]supply of oxygen[blank_end].- Afunction
- Bform
- Cstructure
- Dlocation
- Eone fibre type or a mix of fibre types
- Fone fibre type
- Ga mix of fibre types
- HNeed explosive power
- IShort duration
- JAnaerobic metabolism
- Kless oxygen
- LFast and intermediate fibres
- MNeed fatigue resistance
- NLonger duration
- Oaerobic metabolism
- Pmore oxygen
- Qno oxygen
- RSlow and Intermediate fibres
- Ssupply of oxygen
- Tbreakdown of oxygen
45A [blank_start]twitch[blank_end] is a single electrical stimulation of a muscle. Single [blank_start]twitches[blank_end] [blank_start]can[blank_end] occur spontaneously, but usually [blank_start]do not[blank_end]. [blank_start]Treppe[blank_end] is a series of spaced twitches. Repeated stimuli cause [blank_start]increasing[blank_end] levels of tension, due to sustained higher levels of s[blank_start]arcoplasmic[blank_end] c[blank_start]alcium[blank_end], Actin-myosin interactions become [blank_start]more[blank_end] sensitive to calcium and [blank_start]heat[blank_end]. Rapidly repeated stimuli cause even [blank_start]higher[blank_end] levels of tension or [blank_start]tetanus[blank_end]. [blank_start]Incomplete tetanus[blank_end] has visible fluctuations from individual [blank_start]twitches[blank_end]. [blank_start]Complete tetanus[blank_end] appears smooth. Activated muscle fibres in a contractile state are usually in [blank_start]tetanus[blank_end].
[blank_start]Fatigue[blank_end] is a state of exhaustion (loss of strength or endurance) produced by strenuous muscle activity.
Physiological fatigue: [blank_start]ATP[blank_end] depletion, due to depletion of g[blank_start]lucose[blank_end] & O[blank_start]2[blank_end], and Build up of metabolic by-products: e.g. Pi and [blank_start]lactic acid[blank_end]
Psychological fatigue
Feedback from working muscles to brain produces [blank_start]sensation[blank_end] of fatigue, even though muscle is [blank_start]still capable[blank_end] of contracting.- Atwitch
- Btwitches
- Ccan
- Ddo not
- ETreppe
- Fincreasing
- Garcoplasmic
- Halcium
- Imore
- Jheat
- Khigher
- Ltetanus
- MIncomplete tetanus
- Ntwitches
- OComplete tetanus
- Ptetanus
- QFatigue
- RATP
- Slucose
- Txygen
- Ulactic acid
- Vsensation
- Wstill capable
46Cardiac muscle:
- AMultinucleate and striated (t-tubules)
- BMononucleate and unstriated (no t-tubles)
- CActin and myosin organised in parallel along an axis
- DActin and myosin arranged in various directions so exert weaker force but in many various directions
- EAction potential spreads via gap junctions, no discrete synapses
- FInvoluntary contraction
- GVoluntary contraction
- HAction potentials do not spread via gap junctions, individual motor neuron fires motor unit, each cell has one synapse
- IIntercalated disks between branching adjacent cells
- JLong and cylindrical
47Skeletal muscle:
- ALong and cylindrical
- BMultinucleate and striated (t-tubules)
- CActin and myosin organised in parallel along an axis
- DAction potential not spread from cell to cell, individual motor neuron fires motor unit, each cell has one synapse
- EVoluntary
- FInvoluntary
- GAction potential spread from cell to cell via gap junctions
- HActin and myosin arranged in various directions so exert weaker force but in many various directions
- IMononucleate and unstriated (no t-tubules)
- JSpindle-shaped
48Smooth muscle:
- AMononucleate and unstriated (no t-tubules)
- BMultinucleate and unstriated (t-tubules)
- CActin and myosin arranged in various directions so exert weaker force but in many various directions
- DActin and myosin organised in parallel along an axis
- ESome allow action potentials to be spread from cell to cell (only single unit), no discrete synapses
- FAction potential not spread from cell to cell, individual motor neuron fires motor unit, each cell has one synapse
- Gspindle shaped
- Hintercalated disks between branching adjacent cells
- Ivoluntary
- Jinvoluntary
49[blank_start]Skeletal[blank_end] muscle and [blank_start]cardiac[blank_end] muscle are [blank_start]thin[blank_end]-filament regulated. [blank_start]Calcium[blank_end] binds to [blank_start]troponin[blank_end] on [blank_start]actin[blank_end] and this allows the [blank_start]myosin heads[blank_end] to form [blank_start]cross bridges[blank_end].
[blank_start]Smooth[blank_end] muscle is [blank_start]thick[blank_end] filament regulated. [blank_start]Calcium[blank_end] binds to [blank_start]Calmodulin[blank_end] → this complex activates [blank_start]MLCK[blank_end] which in turn activates [blank_start]MLC[blank_end] which allows the [blank_start]myosin heads[blank_end] to form [blank_start]crossbridges[blank_end].- ASkeletal
- Bcardiac
- Cthin
- DCalcium
- Etroponin
- Factin
- Gmyosin heads
- Hcross bridges
- ISmooth
- Jthick
- KCalcium
- LCalmodulin
- MMLCK
- NMLC
- Omyosin heads
- Pcross bridges
50[blank_start]Smooth Muscle[blank_end] controls the movement of fluids
[blank_start]Skeletal Muscle[blank_end] moves, maintains posture, generates heat
[blank_start]Cardiac Muscle[blank_end] is important for pumping of blood
Cardiac Muscle has [blank_start]intercalated disks[blank_end] between adjacent cells. [blank_start]Desmosomes[blank_end] provide mechanical connection between cells and [blank_start]gap junctions[blank_end] provide electrical connection, [blank_start]allowing action potential to[blank_end] spread from cell to cell. This allows the heart to co-ordinate and contract [blank_start]all at once[blank_end], it does this [blank_start]continuously[blank_end].
Smooth Muscle can have [blank_start]large length changes[blank_end] and [blank_start]sustained tension[blank_end]. It has two types:
1. Single unit: [blank_start]one autonomic neuron varicosity[blank_end] releases neurotransmitter, [blank_start]at active sites,[blank_end] [blank_start]gap junctions[blank_end] [blank_start]allow conduction of AP[blank_end] [blank_start]to spread excitation between cells[blank_end] e.g. [blank_start]digestive, urinary, reproductive tracts[blank_end],
2. Multi unit: [blank_start]multiple autonomic neuron varicosities[blank_end] releases neurotransmitter, [blank_start]one at each cell[blank_end], [blank_start]no gap junctions[blank_end], [blank_start]allows fine control[blank_end] [blank_start]of individual cells[blank_end] e.g. [blank_start]eye muscles, pili muscles, blood vessels[blank_end]
Skeletal Muscle is organised into [blank_start]motor units[blank_end]. The [blank_start]motor unit[blank_end] is [blank_start]one motor neuron[blank_end] [blank_start]and all the muscle fibres it innervates[blank_end]:
1. Small motor units ([blank_start]one motor neuron to a few muscle fibres[blank_end]) are responsible for [blank_start]fine motor control[blank_end].
2. Large motor units ([blank_start]one motor neuron to many muscle fibres[blank_end]) are responsible for [blank_start]heavy lifting[blank_end].
At a [blank_start]neuromuscular junction[blank_end], a neuron secretes [blank_start]ACh[blank_end] which [blank_start]depolarises[blank_end] the muscle fibre. There [blank_start]is no summation, just one motor neuron[blank_end]. When the neuron [blank_start]says go, the muscle goes[blank_end].- ASmooth Muscle
- BCardiac Muscle
- CSkeletal Muscle
- DSkeletal Muscle
- ECardiac Muscle
- FSmooth Muscle
- Gintercalated disks
- Hgap junctions
- Isynaptic clefts
- Jmotor units
- KDesmosomes
- LGap junctions
- MTight junctions
- NNeuromuscular junctions
- Ogap junctions
- Pdesmosomes
- Qtight junctions
- Rneuromuscular junctions
- Sallowing action potential to
- Tpreventing action potential
- Uslowing down action potential
- Vall at once
- Was individual cells
- Xeach ventricle separately
- Yfrom left to right
- Zcontinuously
- AAsporadically
- ABvoluntarily
- AConly as required
- ADsometimes
- AElarge length changes
- AFsmall length changes
- AGmotor units
- AHintercalated disks
- AIstriations
- AJcan have sustained tension
- AKcan not have sustained tension
- ALalways has sustained tension
- AMcan only have pulsing tension
- ANone autonomic neuron varicosity
- AOmultiple autonomic varicosities
- APone autonomic neuron varicosity per cell
- AQmany autonomic neuron varicosities
- ARat active sites,
- ASone at each cell,
- ATfor every cell,
- AUat multiple cells,
- AVgap junctions
- AWno gap junctions
- AXmotor units
- AYno motor units
- AZallow conduction of AP
- BAallows fine control
- BBdoes not allow control
- BCdoes not allow conduction
- BDto spread excitation between cells
- BEto prevent excitation between cells
- BFof individual cells
- BGof many cells
- BHdigestive, urinary, reproductive tracts
- BIeye muscles, pili muscles, blood vessels
- BJdigestive, urinary tracts, blood vessels
- BKreproductive tract and blood vessels
- BLdigestive tract and skin (pili) muscles
- BMmultiple autonomic neuron varicosities
- BNone autonomic neuron varicosity
- BOtwo autonomic neuron varicosity per cell
- BPtwo autonomic neuron varicosities
- BQone at each cell
- BRat multiple cells
- BSfor all cells
- BTat active sites
- BUno gap junctions
- BVgap junctions
- BWmotor units
- BXno motor units
- BYallows fine control
- BZdoes not allow control
- CAallows conduction of AP
- CBdoes not allow conduction
- CCof individual cells
- CDof multiple cells
- CEto spread excitation between cells
- CFto inhibit excitation of cells
- CGeye muscles, pili muscles, blood vessels
- CHfingers for dexterity
- CIfacial muscles and fingers for dexterity
- CJblood vessels and reproductive tract
- CKeye and tongue muscles
- CLmotor units
- CMsingle units and multi units
- CNbranches
- COmuscle units
- CPneuron units
- CQmotor unit
- CRsingle unit
- CSmulti unit
- CTmuscle unit
- CUneuron unit
- CVone motor neuron
- CWone muscle fibre
- CXone muscle
- CYall the motor neurons
- CZand all the muscle fibres it innervates
- DAand all the muscles it innervates
- DBand all the neurons that innervate it
- DCthat innervate one muscle fibre
- DDthat innervate one muscle
- DEone motor neuron to a few muscle fibres
- DFone motor neuron to one muscle fibre
- DGone motor neuron to one muscle
- DHa few motor neurons to one muscle fibre
- DIa few motor neurons to one muscle
- DJfine motor control
- DKmovements just involving one muscle
- DLheavy lifting
- DMsimple muscles
- DNslow movements
- DOone motor neuron to many muscle fibres
- DPone motor neuron to many muscles
- DQmany motor neurons to one muscle
- DRmany motor neurons to many muscles
- DSmany motor neurons to one muscle fibre
- DTmany motor neurons to many muscle fibres
- DUheavy lifting
- DVfine motor control
- DWcomplex muscles
- DXfast movements
- DYco-ordinated movement between muscles
- DZneuromuscular junction
- EAgap junction
- EBmuscle junction
- ECsynaptic cleft
- EDmotor unit
- EEACh
- EFNE
- EGGABA
- EHYMCA
- EIWTF
- EJdepolarises
- EKpolarises
- ELactivates
- EMenergises
- ENneutralises
- EOis no summation, just one motor neuron
- EPneeds to be summation from many neurons
- EQhas to be sufficient depolarisation
- ERhas to be sufficient polarisation
- ESare many neurons to reach threshold
- ETsays go, the muscle goes
- EUsays go, the muscle can go
- EVsays simon says, the muscle goes
- EWreaches threshold, the muscle goes
- EXCardiac Muscle
- EYSkeletal Muscle
- EZSmooth Muscle
51The [blank_start]special senses[blank_end] are the senses that have specialised organs devoted to them. These organs are the [blank_start]eyes - vision[blank_end], [blank_start]ears - hearing and balance[blank_end], [blank_start]tongue - taste[blank_end], and [blank_start]nose: - smell[blank_end].
The [blank_start]somatic senses[blank_end] are the senses that have receptors associated with the skin, muscles, joints, and viscera. These include mechanoreceptors - [blank_start]touch[blank_end], thermoreceptors - [blank_start]hot and cold[blank_end], nociceptors - [blank_start]pain[blank_end] and proprioceptors - [blank_start]body position[blank_end].
Conscious Sensations:
1. [blank_start]Sensory receptor[blank_end] - [blank_start]Sensory stimulus[blank_end] [blank_start]converted into action potentials[blank_end]
2. [blank_start]Afferent neurons[blank_end] - [blank_start]AP travels up a specific pathway[blank_end]
3. [blank_start]Integration centre[blank_end] - [blank_start]Is in the Cerebral cortex[blank_end]. It is where we experience [blank_start]Conscious sensation and perception[blank_end]. Each [blank_start]part of the body has a Mapped location[blank_end] in brain. The sensation [blank_start]is combined with other inputs[blank_end].
Sensory information coding:
Modality: [blank_start]type of information[blank_end], [blank_start]dictated by type of sensory receptor[blank_end]
Intensity: [blank_start]how much of something is going on[blank_end], [blank_start]action potential frequency[blank_end]
Duration: [blank_start]duration of action potential firing[blank_end], [blank_start]most sensitive to changes in sensation[blank_end]
Location: [blank_start]location of receptors mapped in brain[blank_end], [blank_start]somatatopic mapping[blank_end]- Aspecial senses
- Bsomatic senses
- C5 senses
- Dvisceral senses
- Eeyes - vision
- Fankles - pain
- Ghands - touch
- Hfeet - balance
- Iears - hearing and balance
- Jears - hearing
- Kears - balance
- Lbrain - balance
- Mtongue - taste
- Nmouth - taste
- Onose - taste
- Ptongue - talking
- Qnose - smell
- Rnose - sniffing
- Snose - knowing
- Tnose - guiding Santa's sleigh
- Usomatic senses
- Vspecial senses
- W5 senses
- Xreceptor senses
- Ytouch
- Zmovement
- AApain
- ABhot and cold
- ACbody position
- ADbalance
- AEhot and cold
- AFheat
- AGradiation
- AHcold
- AIburning
- AJpain
- AKsadness
- ALbalance
- AMbody position
- ANtouch
- AOmovement
- APbody position
- AQbalance
- ARtouch
- ASpain
- ATSensory receptor
- AUAfferent neurons
- AVEfferent neurons
- AWIntegration centre
- AXPrimary Motor Cortex
- AYAfferent neurons
- AZEfferent neurons
- BASensory receptor
- BBIntegration centre
- BCPrimary Motor Cortex
- BDIntegration centre
- BEPrimary Motor Cortex
- BFAfferent neurons
- BGEfferent neurons
- BHSensory receptor
- BISensory stimulus
- BJAction potential
- BKConscious sensation
- BLCombined input
- BMMapped location
- BNconverted into action potentials
- BOtravels up neuron
- BPtravels up specific pathway
- BQintegrates in the cerebral cortex
- BRAP travels up a specific pathway
- BSis in the cerebral cortex
- BTAP travels from brain to PNS
- BUmaps location in brain
- BVcombines with other inputs
- BWIs in the Cerebral cortex
- BXIs in the periphery
- BYIs in the sensory organ
- BZConverts stimulus into APs
- CAConscious sensation and perception
- CBAction potentials
- CCall motor input
- CDUnconscious sensation and perceptions
- CEpart of the body has a Mapped location
- CFtype of sensation has a Mapped location
- CGsensory organ goes to a specific lobe
- CHsensation has to be summated
- CIis combined with other inputs
- CJtravels down efferent neurons to the PNS
- CKtravels up afferent neurons to the brain
- CLis felt in the sensory organ
- CMtype of information
- CNhow much of something is going on
- COduration of action potential firing
- CPlocation of receptors mapped in brain
- CQhow much of something is going on
- CRtype of information
- CSduration of action potential firing
- CTlocation of receptors mapped in brain
- CUduration of action potential firing
- CVtype of information
- CWlocation of receptors mapped in brain
- CXhow much of something is going on
- CYlocation of receptors mapped in brain
- CZtype of information
- DAhow much of something is going on
- DBduration of action potential firing
- DCdictated by type of sensory receptor
- DDaction potential frequency
- DEmost sensitive to changes in sensation
- DFsomatatopic mapping
- DGaction potential frequency
- DHdictated by type of sensory receptor
- DImost sensitive to changes in sensation
- DJsomatatopic mapping
- DKmost sensitive to changes in sensation
- DLdictated by type of sensory receptor
- DMaction potential frequency
- DNsomatatopic mapping
- DOsomatatopic mapping
- DPdictated by type of sensory receptor
- DQaction potential frequency
- DRmost sensitive to changes in sensation
52Stimulus Modality:
[blank_start]Proprioceptors[blank_end] sense [blank_start]body position[blank_end].
Length receptors: [blank_start]Muscle spindles[blank_end] → [blank_start]Stretch[blank_end] reflex → Action: [blank_start]Shortening of muscle[blank_end] → Outcome: [blank_start]Posture[blank_end]
Tension receptors: [blank_start]Golgi tendon organ[blank_end] → [blank_start]Tension[blank_end] reflex → Action: [blank_start]Relaxation[blank_end] → Outcome: [blank_start]Protects from tearing[blank_end]
Superficial touch receptors sense [blank_start]light[blank_end] pressure, [blank_start]low[blank_end] frequency vibration and [blank_start]textural sensation[blank_end].
Deep touch receptors sense [blank_start]deep[blank_end] pressure, [blank_start]high[blank_end] frequency vibration and [blank_start]crude, persistent touch[blank_end].
Superficial free nerve endings ([blank_start]Nociceptors[blank_end]) sense [blank_start]pain[blank_end].- AProprioceptors
- Bbody position
- CMuscle spindles
- DStretch
- EShortening of muscle
- FPosture
- GTension
- HRelaxation
- IProtects from tearing
- JGolgi tendon organ
- Klight
- Llow
- Mtextural sensation
- Ndeep
- Ohigh
- Pcrude, persistent touch
- QNociceptors
- Rpain
- Slocation
- Tduration
- Uintensity
- Vtouch
- WMechanoreceptors
- XThermoreceptors
53Stimulus Intensity:
Below threshold: [blank_start]no response in afferent neuron[blank_end]
Increasing stimulus [blank_start]increases[blank_end] action potential [blank_start]frequency[blank_end]
Intensity can be shown by [blank_start]many neurons firing[blank_end] or [blank_start]one neuron firing many times[blank_end].
Stimulus Duration:
Sensory receptors are [blank_start]most[blank_end] sensitive to change
Often show adaptation: [blank_start]decreased[blank_end] receptor potential over time in response to continuous stimulation
Touch receptors [blank_start]are rapidly adapting[blank_end].
Stretch adaptors [blank_start]are slowly adapting[blank_end].- Ano response in afferent neuron
- Bno response in efferent neuron
- Climited response in afferent neuron
- Dlimited response in efferent neuron
- Eincreases
- Fdecreases
- Gfrequency
- Hamplitude
- Ilength
- Jsize
- Kmany neurons firing
- Llarge action potential
- Mhigh action potential
- Nfast action potential
- Ospeed
- Pone neuron firing many times
- Qone neuron sending a large impulse
- Rone neuron sending a fast impulse
- Sa high intensity neuron firing a signal
- Tmost
- Uleast
- Vnot
- Wa little
- Xdecreased
- Yincreased
- Zmaximum
- AAno change to
- ABare rapidly adapting
- ACare slowly adapting
- ADdo not adapt
- AEare slowly adapting
- AFare rapidly adapting
- AGdo not adapt
54Stimulus Location:
[blank_start]Receptive field[blank_end]: Region of space in which a stimulus can lead to activity in a particular afferent neuron
[blank_start]Small[blank_end] fields and [blank_start]dense[blank_end] innervation gives good discrimination e.g. [blank_start]fingertips and lips[blank_end]
[blank_start]Large[blank_end] fields and [blank_start]sparse[blank_end] innervation gives poor discrimination e.g. [blank_start]surface of back[blank_end]
Fields [blank_start]can overlap[blank_end]- AReceptive field
- Bsmall
- Cdense
- Dfingertips and lips
- Elarge
- Fsparse
- Gsurface of back
- Hcan overlap
- Imust not overlap
- Jmust overlap
- Kcan not overlap
- Lmany
- Mfew
- Nstrong
- Oweak
- PDiscrimination field
- QLocative field
- RSomatatopic field
55[blank_start]Somatosensory[blank_end] Cortex
Sensation: [blank_start]‘what and where’[blank_end] occurs in [blank_start]Primary[blank_end] region of cortex
Perception: [blank_start]Meaningful interpretation[blank_end] occurs in [blank_start]Association (secondary)[blank_end] region of the cortex
Somatotopic Organisation
Areas of cortex correspond to [blank_start]areas of the body[blank_end]
[blank_start]Densely innervated[blank_end] areas of body occupy large regions of cortex
Left cortex represents [blank_start]right[blank_end] body, Right cortex represents [blank_start]left[blank_end] body- ASomatosensory
- BMotor
- CPrimary
- DMeaningful interpretation
- EAssociation (secondary)
- Fareas of the body
- Gtypes of sensation
- Hintensity of sensation
- Imethod of input
- JDensely innervated
- KLarge
- LComplex
- Mright
- Nleft
- O‘what and where’
56Stimulus modality: [blank_start]pain[blank_end]
Sensed by [blank_start]free nerve endings[blank_end] ([blank_start]nociceptors[blank_end]) which are located in [blank_start]organs[blank_end] throughout the body, [blank_start]but not[blank_end] in brain. They have specialised sensitivity to [blank_start]local chemical signals[blank_end] in damaged tissue. Two types of pain:
Fast ([blank_start]acute[blank_end]) pain has a [blank_start]small[blank_end] receptive field. The axons are [blank_start]large[blank_end] and [blank_start]myelinated[blank_end] → [blank_start]A[blank_end] fibres. This is [blank_start]somatic[blank_end] pain.
Slow ([blank_start]chronic[blank_end]) pain has a [blank_start]large[blank_end] receptive field. The axons are [blank_start]small[blank_end] and [blank_start]unmyelinated[blank_end] → [blank_start]B[blank_end] fibres. This is [blank_start]visceral[blank_end] pain.- Apain
- Bfree nerve endings
- Cnociceptors
- Dorgans
- Ebut not
- Flocal chemical signals
- Gacute
- Hsmall
- Ilarge
- Jmyelinated
- KA
- Lsomatic
- Mchronic
- Nlarge
- Osmall
- Punmyelinated
- QB
- Rvisceral
57[blank_start]Basal nuclei (basal ganglia)[blank_end] modifies movement using a loop system with the cortex. It helps select [blank_start]an appropriate movement/movement program[blank_end] for a given situation and inhibits [blank_start]inappropriate movements[blank_end]. It is made up of [blank_start]a collection of nuclei below cortex[blank_end]. It has to approve [blank_start]intentions[blank_end] for them to become [blank_start]movements[blank_end]. At rest it inhibits [blank_start]the cortex[blank_end]. For movement to occur, it must inhibit [blank_start]the inhibition[blank_end].
- ABasal nuclei (basal ganglia)
- BThe cerebellum
- CThe hippocampus
- DThe primary motor cortex
- EThe secondary motor cortex
- Fan appropriate movement/movement program
- Gan appropriate movement
- Han appropriate movement program
- Ian appropriate muscle/muscle group
- Jan appropriate muscle
- Kan appropriate muscle group
- Linappropriate movements
- Minappropriate muscles
- Na collection of nuclei below cortex
- Oa pair of nuclei below cortex
- Pa nucleus below cortex
- Qa collection of nuclei around brain
- Rone nucleus on each side of the brain
- Sone nucleus in the middle of the brain
- Tintentions
- Uthoughts
- Videas
- Wmovement programs
- Xmovements
- Yactions
- Zinhibited
- AAexcited
- ABmuscles
- ACthe cortex
- ADthe inhibition
- AEexcitation
- AFmovement
58The [blank_start]Cerebellum[blank_end] (little brain) ensures a selected [blank_start]movement[blank_end] is co-ordinated, guided by [blank_start]sensory[blank_end] feedback. The [blank_start]motor cortex[blank_end] signals to [blank_start]lower motor neurons[blank_end] via [blank_start]thalamus[blank_end], and sends a signal to the [blank_start]cerebellum[blank_end] about an [blank_start]intended movement[blank_end]. [blank_start]Sensory[blank_end] signals then feedback to [blank_start]cerebellum[blank_end] and it matches the [blank_start]actual movement[blank_end] to the [blank_start]intended movement[blank_end]. If there is a [blank_start]discrepancy[blank_end], it sends [blank_start]corrective signals[blank_end] to [blank_start]motor cortex[blank_end] and [blank_start]muscle[blank_end]. It is also important for maintenance of [blank_start]posture[blank_end].
[blank_start]Procedural[blank_end] Memory is the development of [blank_start]automatic[blank_end] movements. [blank_start]Patterns[blank_end] of movement may be called [blank_start]motor programs[blank_end]. This is colloquially known as [blank_start]muscle memory[blank_end].- ACerebellum
- Bmovement
- Csensory
- Dmotor cortex
- Elower motor neurons
- Fthalamus
- Gcerebellum
- Hintended movement
- ISensory
- Jcerebellum
- Kactual movement
- Lintended movement
- Mdiscrepancy
- Ncorrective signals
- Omotor cortex
- Pmuscle
- Qposture
- RProcedural
- Sautomatic
- TPatterns
- Umotor programs
- Vmuscle memory
59Control of skeletal muscle from most controlled to least controlled:
[blank_start]Voluntary[blank_end] movements
[blank_start]Automatic[blank_end] movements
[blank_start]Reflex[blank_end] movements
All occur via [blank_start]final common pathway[blank_end].- AVoluntary
- BAutomatic
- CReflex
- Dfinal common pathway
60Reflex movements:
Reflexes have an [blank_start]organised neural circuit[blank_end], usually within [blank_start]the spinal cord[blank_end]. They have a [blank_start]predictable and reproducible[blank_end], [blank_start]automatic[blank_end] response to a particular sensory stimulus. They are [blank_start]very fast[blank_end] as there is [blank_start]no[blank_end] remote processing in [blank_start]high levels[blank_end] of nervous system. Reflex happens [blank_start]before[blank_end] the signal reaches the brain.
The [blank_start]stretch[blank_end] reflex - tendons are [blank_start]very[blank_end] sensitive to changes in [blank_start]length[blank_end], very [blank_start]simple[blank_end] reflex arc, [blank_start]monosynaptic[blank_end].
The [blank_start]withdrawal[blank_end] reflex has to [blank_start]withdraw[blank_end] from the stimulus ([blank_start]ipsilateral[blank_end]) and [blank_start]stabilise[blank_end] the other side of body ([blank_start]contralateral[blank_end]).- Aorganised neural circuit
- Bthe spinal cord
- Cpredictable and reproducible
- Dautomatic
- Every fast
- Fno
- Ghigh levels
- Hbefore
- Istretch
- Jvery
- Klength
- Lsimple
- Mmonosynaptic
- Nwithdrawal
- Owithdraw
- Pipsilateral
- Qstabilise
- Rcontralateral
- Sthe PNS
- Tthe brain
- Uthe reflex arc
- Vrandom loop
- Wlong and complex circuit
- Xpredictable, but not reproducible
- Yunpredictable and difficult to reproduce
- Zunpredictable, but reproducible
- AAvoluntary
- ABcontemplated
- ACfast
- ADslow
- AEvery slow
- AFsome
- AGminimal
- AHany level
- AIlow levels
- AJafter
- AKas soon as
- ALtension
- AMnot very
- ANslightly
- AOnot
- APtone
- AQcomplex
- ARlong
- ASshort
- ATmultisynaptic
- AUbisynaptic
- AVbounce back
- AWspring
- AXbilateral
- AYmonolateral
- AZhomolateral
- BAheterolateral
- BBmove
- BCshake
- BDalso
61Voluntary movements:
The [blank_start]pyramidal tracts[blank_end] derive their name from the [blank_start]medullary pyramids[blank_end]. The [blank_start]Corticospinal tract[blank_end] is responsible for [blank_start]precise[blank_end], [blank_start]voluntary[blank_end] movements of the body. It begins in the [blank_start]cerebral cortex[blank_end] and receives a range of inputs:
[blank_start]Primary motor cortex[blank_end]
[blank_start]Premotor cortex[blank_end]
[blank_start]Supplementary motor area[blank_end]
The fibres within the [blank_start]lateral corticospinal tract[blank_end] [blank_start]decussate at the medulla[blank_end]. They then descend into the [blank_start]spinal cord[blank_end], terminating in the [blank_start]ventral horn[blank_end] where the [blank_start]lower motor neurons[blank_end] go on to supply the muscles of the body. Sometimes it will synapse on an [blank_start]interneuron[blank_end].- Apyramidal tracts
- Bextrapyramidal tracts
- Cmedullary pyramids
- DCorticospinal tract
- Eprecise
- Fvoluntary
- Gcerebral cortex
- HSupplementary motor area
- IPrimary motor cortex
- JPremotor cortex
- Klateral corticospinal tract
- Ldecussate at the medulla
- Mspinal cord
- Nventral horn
- Olower motor neurons
- Pponticular pyramids
- Qthe shape of the tract
- Rthe pattern the tracts make in the body
- SReticulospinal tract
- TMedial lemniscal tract
- ULateral spinothalmic tract
- VRubrospinal tract
- Wsmall
- Xlarge
- Ygross
- Zrough
- AAsimple
- ABinvoluntary
- ACreflex
- ADspontaneous
- AEcerebellum
- AFmidbrain
- AGred nucleus
- AHSomatosensory cortex
- AISecondary motor area
- AJPrimary sensory cortex
- AKanterior corticospinal tract
- ALmedial corticospinal tract
- AMdoes not decussate
- ANdecussates in the spinal cord
- AOdecussates at origin
- APPNS
- AQventral column
- ARdorsal column
- ASdorsal horn
- ATupper motor neurons
- AUinterneurons
- AVinterneuron
62Automatic movements
The [blank_start]extrapyramidal tracts[blank_end] are [blank_start]all other descending pathways[blank_end]. They originate in the [blank_start]brainstem[blank_end], carrying motor fibres to the [blank_start]spinal cord[blank_end]. They are responsible for the [blank_start]involuntary[blank_end] and [blank_start]automatic[blank_end] control of all musculature, such as [blank_start]muscle tone, balance and posture[blank_end], and [blank_start]automatic movements[blank_end] e.g. [blank_start]walking, chewing, smiling[blank_end]. They [blank_start]can be both excitatory and inhibitory[blank_end]. The [blank_start]reticulospinal tract[blank_end] [blank_start]does not decussate[blank_end], providing [blank_start]ipsilateral[blank_end] innervation. It [blank_start]excite extensors and inhibits flexors[blank_end]. The [blank_start]medial reticulospinal tract[blank_end] arises from the pons. It [blank_start]facilitates[blank_end] voluntary movements, and [blank_start]increases[blank_end] muscle tone. The [blank_start]lateral reticulospinal tract[blank_end] arises from the medulla. It [blank_start]inhibits[blank_end] voluntary movements, and [blank_start]reduces[blank_end] muscle tone and it is [blank_start]weakly bilateral[blank_end]. The rubrospinal tract [blank_start]does decussate[blank_end], and therefore provides [blank_start]contralateral[blank_end] innervation. It originates from the [blank_start]red nucleus[blank_end] in the midbrain and it is thought to play a role in [blank_start]the fine control of hand movements[blank_end]. It [blank_start]excites flexors and inhibits extensors[blank_end].- Aextrapyramidal tracts
- Bpyramidal tracts
- Creflex arcs
- Dall other descending pathways
- Eall other ascending pathways
- Fthe primary descending pathway
- Gthe primary ascending pathway
- Hbrainstem
- Icerebellum
- Jprimary motor cortex
- Kbasal ganglia
- Lspinal cord
- MPNS
- Nsmooth muscles
- Oinvoluntary
- Pvoluntary
- Qsympathetic
- Rparasympathetic
- Sautomatic
- Tsomatic
- Uplanned
- Vreflex
- Wmuscle tone, balance and posture
- Xfine motor control
- Ycomplex movements
- Zautomatic movements
- AAcomplex, conscious movements
- ABwalking, chewing, smiling
- ACnavigating a difficult obstacle course
- ADIrish Dancing
- AEprecise movements
- AFcan be both excitatory and inhibitory
- AGare excitatory
- AHare inhibitory
- AIreticulospinal tract
- AJdoes not decussate
- AKdecussates in the spinal cord
- ALdecussates at the medulla
- AMipsilateral
- ANhomolateral
- AOheterolateral
- APmonolateral
- AQexcites extensors and inhibits flexors
- ARinhibits extensors and inhibits flexors
- ASexcites extensors and excites flexors
- ATmedial reticulospinal tract
- AUfacilitates
- AVincreases
- AWlateral reticulospinal tract
- AXinhibits
- AYreduces
- AZweakly bilateral
- BAdecussates at the midbrain
- BBcontralateral
- BCred nucleus
- BDpons
- BEmedulla
- BFthe fine control of hand movements
- BGgross motor movements
- BHexcites flexors and inhibits extensors
63Label the parts of the brain:
- ACerebellum
- BCerebrum
- CBrainstem
- DSomatic sensory association area
- EPrimary somatic sensory area
- FPrimary motor cortex
- GPremotor cortex
- HPrefrontal cortex
- IGoal
- JMotor program/movement planning
- KMotor unit activation/movement execution
- LSensation/conscious identification
- MPerception/meaningful interpretation
64Integration between motor and sensory systems - movement control
- ACerebral cortex
- BBasal nuclei
- CThalamus
- DCerebellum
- EBrainstem
- FSpinal cord
- GInterneurons
- HAnterior horn motor neurons
- ISkeletal muscles
65A neuron that releases ACh = [blank_start]Cholinergic[blank_end]
A neuron that releases NE = [blank_start]Adrenergic[blank_end]- ACholinergic
- BAdrenergic
66Light Reflex
In light, [blank_start]parasympathetic[blank_end] fibres of oculomotor nerve via the [blank_start]ciliary[blank_end] ganglion release [blank_start]ACh[blank_end] at the [blank_start]pupillary constrictor[blank_end] and the pupil [blank_start]constricts[blank_end] to let in [blank_start]less[blank_end] light.
In darkness, [blank_start]sympathetic[blank_end] fibres of oculomotor nerve via the [blank_start]superior cervical[blank_end] ganglion release [blank_start]NE[blank_end] at the [blank_start]pupillary dilators[blank_end] and the pupil [blank_start]dilates[blank_end] to let in [blank_start]more[blank_end] light.
Baroreceptor Reflex
The baroreceptor reflex is a [blank_start]stretch[blank_end] reflex. The [blank_start]baroreceptors[blank_end] sense [blank_start]increased[blank_end] blood pressure and send signals via the [blank_start]glossopharyngeal[blank_end] nerve to the [blank_start]brain[blank_end] which activates the [blank_start]parasympathetic[blank_end] nervous system and sends signals via the [blank_start]vagus[blank_end] nerve to the [blank_start]heart[blank_end] to [blank_start]decrease[blank_end] the heart rate.- Aparasympathetic
- Bciliary
- CACh
- Dpupillary constrictor
- Eless
- Fconstricts
- Gsympathetic
- Hsuperior cervical
- INE
- Jpupillary dilator
- Kdilates
- Lmore
- Mstretch
- Nbaroreceptors
- Oincreased
- Pglossopharyngeal
- Qbrain
- Rparasympathetic
- Svagus
- Theart
- Udecrease
67All somatic neurons release [blank_start]ACh[blank_end].
All parasympathetic post-ganglionic neurons release [blank_start]ACh[blank_end].
Most sympathetic post-ganglionic neurons release [blank_start]ACh[blank_end], but some release [blank_start]NE[blank_end].
Preganglionic neurons [blank_start]excite[blank_end] postganglionic neurons. Postganglionic neurons [blank_start]can excite or inhibit[blank_end] effectors.
Neurotransmitter effect depends on the type of [blank_start]post-synaptic receptor[blank_end]:
1. Ionotropic receptors have [blank_start]an ion channel[blank_end]
[blank_start]Nicotinic cholinergic[blank_end]
They are [blank_start]Depolarising[blank_end] and therefore [blank_start]excitatory[blank_end]
2. Metabotropic receptors have [blank_start]intracellular metabolic messengers[blank_end]
[blank_start]Muscarinic cholinergic[blank_end]
[blank_start]Alpha and Beta adrenergic[blank_end]
They are [blank_start]Depolarising or hyperpolarising[blank_end] and therefore [blank_start]Excitatory or inhibitory[blank_end]- AACh
- BNE
- CGABA
- DWTF
- EACh
- FNE
- GGABA
- HBRB
- IACh
- JNE
- KGABA
- LLOL
- MNE
- NACh
- OGABA
- POMG
- Qexcite
- Rinhibit
- Scan excite or inhibit
- Tcan excite or inhibit
- Uexcite
- Vinhibit
- Wpost-synaptic receptor
- Xneurotransmitter
- Yeffector cell
- Zneuron
- AAan ion channel
- ABintracellular metabolic messengers
- ACNicotinic cholinergic
- ADMuscarinic cholinergic
- AEAlpha and Beta cholinergic
- AFNicotinic adrenergic
- AGDepolarising
- AHHyperpolarising
- AIDepolarising or hyperpolarising
- AJexcitatory
- AKinhibitory
- ALexcitatory or inhibitory
- AMintracellular metabolic messengers
- ANan ion channel
- AOMuscarinic cholinergic
- APMuscarinic adrenergic
- AQNicotinic cholinergic
- ARNicotinic adrenergic
- ASMuscarinic adrenergic
- ATAlpha and Beta adrenergic
- AUAlpha and Beta cholinergic
- AVNicotinic cholinergic
- AWNicotinic adrenergic
- AXDepolarising or hyperpolarising
- AYDepolarising
- AZHyperpolarising
- BAExcitatory or inhibitory
- BBExcitatory
- BCInhibitory
Information
- Description
- Quiz on Nervous System, created by Juliet S on 12/05/2018.
- Author
- Juliet S
- Language
- English
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