Fichas
Self
Fichas del conjunto (70)
- 1Meself as observed (traits, attributes, skills, possessions)
- 2Iself as the observer (stream of consciousness)
- 3self-conceptcollection of beliefs about yourself, regarding characteristics, skills, attitudes
- 4self-esteema global evaluation of yourself, including feelings of self-worth and competence
- 5effects of high self-esteempsychologically healthy; high self-concept clarity (having a stable and secure view of self, not buffeted easily by external factors); higher self-confidence & self-efficacy; happier & more satisfied; better at coping with threat via self-affirmation (reassuring self of own positive qualities); potentially unrealistically positively biased views about self (evidence suggests they are no better liked by others); less afraid of death according to terror management theory; risk of narcissism
- 6effects of low self-esteemnegative self views (potentially more accurate); concerned about others' opinions; threat causes spreading negative affect from a specific failure to other parts of the self (unable to self-affirm)
- 7dimensions of self-esteemSelf-liking: internalised acceptance & approval from others, originates from receiving parental support
Self-competence: self-ratings of abilities - 8Explicit self-esteemself-reported evaluation. Biased by self-presentation (wanting to come across as being confident/modest) and self-deception (not wanting to admit own doubts of self-worth)
- 9Implicit self-esteemunconscious, automatic self-evaluations. Low correlations with explicit self-esteem. Measured using experimental tasks such as Name-Letter task (asks how much you like each letter. Higher self-esteem -> prefer letters in own name, especially initials)
- 10Trait self-esteemlong-term, stable conceptions of self
- 11state self-esteemmomentary fluctuations in self-feelings, changes with self-related events (e.g. success & failure). Can be manipulated by simulating these experiences via feedback. E.g. word search task, pps all in a room, given either a hard or easy word search. Pps are told of the word-finding 'average'. Hard search -> failure condition (-> lower mood); easy search -> success condition
- 12self-esteem stabilityextent to which state self-esteem fluctuates. Can be measured via diaries which include rated self-esteem, standard deviation taken of these scores
- 13self-schemascognitive representation of the self, including possible selves and self-guides. Usually our most elaborate & detailed schema, as we have more information about ourselves than anything else. Guides and influences behaviour, decisions, inferences, and judgements. Tends to describe us on dimensions we consider very meaningful
- 14possible selvesself-schemas about potential future selves. Represent our hopes and fears for the future. Aids us in focusing and planning for the future by doing things to make dreams happen, and avoiding things that make your fears more likely (and thus reduce anxiety associated with it)
- 15ideal self-guideswhat we want to become. Self-discrepancy from ideal -> dejection, depression, lack of satisfaction
- 16ought self-guideswhat we feel we should become (obligations). Self-discrepancy from ought -> anxiety, agitation
- 17socialisationhow we're treated in childhood, the experiences we have growing up. Source of self-knowledge. E.g. raised going to the opera and museums -> develop into a cultured person
- 18social identitypart of the self-concept that's derived from social groups (e.g. family, work, religion, community)
- 19independent view of selfdefines the self via own internal thoughts, feelings, and actions. Characteristic of the Western world. Focus on uniqueness, personal achievement, agentic motives, and egocentric motives (e.g. pride). Is stable across situations
- 20interdependent view of selfdefines the self via thoughts, feelings, and actions of others. Characteristic of Eastern and Latin cultures. Focus on connectedness, relationships, group goals, communal motives, and other-focused emotions (e.g. amae, the feeling associated w/ the desire to be loved and dependent). Changes across situations
- 21Symbolic interactionismidea that we learn about ourselves through others' responses to us
- 22looking glass selfthe idea that we see ourselves the way others see us. Revised later to be: we see ourselves the way we THINK others see us
- 23self-perception theoryidea that we use observations of ourselves to make decisions about ourselves (usually about relatively unimportant aspects), particularly when our feelings about something are ambiguous. The influence of these observations will be negligible if we believe our behaviour at the time was the result of someone else's influence
- 24Social comparison theoryidea that we learn about our own abilities and attitudes by comparing them with others', especially when there's no objective standard
- 25upward social comparisoncomparing self to people who are superior in a trait or ability. Lets us see what can be achieved, but can make us feel inferior and disheartened
- 26downward social comparisoncomparing self to someone inferior in trait of ability. Makes us feel good about our own.
- 27temporal comparisonscomparing self to a past self
- 28self-regulationa mostly-unconscious process wherein you guide your own thoughts, feelings, and behaviours
- 29working self-concepta particular self-schema that is activated by a specific situation. Drives cognitions and behaviour (e.g. party vs work)
- 30Contingencies of self-worthareas of personal importance, which are used to determine your self-worth. Drive reactions and behaviour. You're very receptive to success & sensitive to failure in these areas
- 31self-efficacyexpectations about our own ability to do certain things & achieve goals. Is specific to a domain. High -> increases your effort persistence, helps us cope w/ setbacks (the "I can do it" sort of attitude)
- 32self-controlthe way we make choices for the present and plan for the future. Is like a muscle, we have a limited supply and it takes energy (blood glucose) to exercise. Increases in strength with practice (practice is specific to a situation). Helps to set behavioural intentions.
- 33thought suppressionaction of trying to push thoughts out of your head, which often backfires, especially if we don't have the energy. It's better to freely think, but not act on these thoughts. This was shown in Macrae et al., wherein instruction to suppress the thought of white bears didn't completely eliminate the thought, but when subsequently permitted to think about them, the occurrence of thoughts about white bears became much greater than when there was no suppression period.
- 34self-regulatory resource modelidea that we can only exercise self-control when we have the energy (blood gluocse)
- 354 types of self motivesself-assessment; self-improvement; self-verification; self-enhancement
- 36self-assessmentthe motive to see yourself accurately and know your strengths/limitations. Makes outcomes of your actions more predictable & controllable. Evolutionarily adaptive to know what you can/'t do. Motivates us to seek objective feedback from expert source (e.g. highly diagnostic tasks) despite risk of negative outcomes
- 37self-improvementmotive to improve self and become a better person. Motivated by negative feedback. Goals are used from our possible & ideal self-guides. Helps us set and work toward goals
- 38self-verificationthe motive to confirm existing views about ourself in order to get cognitive coherence and have smoother interactions (so you can be yourself without doing something you know you can't/shouldn't). Mainly unconscious. Is activated by self-discrepant information (e.g. someone sees you differently to how you do). Done by behaving consistently, wearing representative clothes/symbols, choosing interaction partners that see you the same way you do, and choosing feedback that matches (can reaffirm depressive beliefs, only accepting negative feedback)
- 39self-enhancementmotive to see self positively and feel good about yourself. Done via self-promotion (persuing positivity), self-protection (avoiding negativity) and the self-enhancing triad, as well as other subtle strategies. Especially motivated by threat and failure. Is very strong and may override all other motives. Can have intrapersonal benefits (e.g. positive affect, high self-esteem, high self-efficacy, confidence, less likely to have negative affect in response to threat/negative feedback). However, may be better to be accurate
- 40self-enhancing traidstrategies used in self-enhancement
above-average effect: ppl tend to believe they're above average on a given trait/relationship/possession
Illusions of control: doing things you believe give you control even if they don't (e.g. wanting to pick your own lottery numbers)
Unrealistic optimism: believing the likelihood of positive events is higher for you than for others, and opposite of negative events - 41self-serving attributional biasblaming external factors for failures, and internal factors for successes. Used for self-enhancement
- 42strategic social comparisonscomparing ourselves to those inferior to us in order to feel better. Used for self-enhancement
- 43memory biasbeing less likely to remember negative feedback and more likely to remember positive. Positive feedback more easily comes to mind. Doesn't apply to the feedback given to others. Used for self-enhancement
- 44strategic construalsredefining the meaning of an event/concept to put self in a positive light (e.g. deciding to take the bus to "save the environment", not because you actually just failed your driving test). Used for self-enhancement
- 45self-presentationwanting to present a self that others will like (i.e. lying about your score on a test). Used for self-enhancement
- 46self-handicappingcreating obstacles to your own success, gives you an excuse for failure. Self-defeating. Used for self-enhancement and impression management, although people don't like others that self-handicap (particularly women, as they put more value into hard word and are critical of those who don't). Two forms: behavioural self-handicapping and reported self-handicapping. More characteristic of men
- 47impression managementthe way we present ourselves in order to be seen the way we want. Done through ingratiation and self-handicapping. Is particularly important in Asian cultures
- 48relational interdependenceway of defining the self that focuses more on close relationships. Is characteristic of women. Supported by research seeing that young girls are more likely to have intimate friendships and cooperate with focus on social relationships. Later in life, more likely to be close with a small group of people to whom they disclose emotions and personal information
- 49collective interdependenceway of defining the self that focuses on membership to larger groups (i.e. country, fraternity). Characteristic of men.
- 50self-awareness theorythe idea that self-focusing cues in the environment (e.g. mirror, seeing self in a video, having an audience) lead us to state of self-awareness, where we evaluate and compare our current behaviour with our internal standards and values, and thus act as a judge or observer to the self. If we deem our current behaviour inadequate, we become uncomfortable in this state. Either change behaviour, or attempt to leave state via binge eating, sexual masochism, alcohol abuse, religious expression, spirituality, etc. Following successes, this state is pleasant, and can keep you out of trouble (less likely to cheat on a test when in front of a mirror), but can remind us of short-comings
- 51outside perspective of selfseeing the self through the eyes of others. Classically characteristic of Easterners (but not necessarily)
- 52insider perspective of selfviewing self as a private experience, with less focus on what others think of them. Classically characteristic of Westerners (but not necessarily)
- 53Introspectionexamining self as way of gaining self-knowledge. Not often used, and affected greatly by gaps in our knowledge. Can lead us to believe in our own explanations for our feelings and behaviours that we can't actually know ('telling more than we can know'). We rely on causal theories (ideas about what SHOULD influence feelings/behaviours, e.g. it's Monday so I'm annoyed; I'm divorced so I'm unlikely to ever be happily married)
- 54Reasons-generated attitude changechange in attitudes resulting from thinking about those attitudes. Analysing reasons why you feel the way you do tends to amplify those feelings beyond what they actually are, because they force you to focus on the aspects that you can put into words, even though the reasons you can't explain are typically more influential. Effect wears off after a little while. Research: students asked to list why things were going the way they were with their romantic partner. Relationship going well -> attitudes became more positive, and vice versa
- 55Intrinsic motivationbeing motivated to do something because you enjoy it
- 56extrinsic motivationbeing motivated to do something by external rewards/pressures
- 57overjustification effectwhen you introduce extrinsic motivation to an activity that already had intrinsic motivation, the intrinsic motivation gets replaced (e.g. reward kids for reading, even though some kids will like reading in the first place -> after the reward program ends, even the kids who liked reading will no longer read). Occurs with contingent rewards but not performance-contingent rewards
- 58contingent rewardsrewards given for completing a task regardless of the quality of performance. Can lead to the overjustification effet
- 59performance-contingent rewardsrewards given based on the performance on a task. Are less likely to cause the overjustification effect, and can inspire more intrinsic motivation, as it can act as positive feedback and assure person that they're good at the task. But can backfire, as people get nervous about being evaluated. Need to limit this anxiety to reap full benefits
- 602-factor theory of emotionFirst experience physiological arousal, then make an attribution to label the feeling. Label isn't necessarily correct, can lead to misattribution of arousal
- 61Misattribution of arousalmaking an incorrect judgement of your current emotion, according to the 2-factor theory of emotion. Research: Pps given epinephrine (causes arousal) & given insulting questionnaire (E.g. how many people has your mother slept with aside from your father). A confederate taking the questionnaire gets angry and rips it up. If not told about possible symptoms of injection, pps would get angry.
- 62Fixed mindsetbelief that people have a set and fixed amount of ability. More likely to give up after setbacks, and less likely to develop skills
- 63Growth mindsetbelief that abilities can be developed. More likely to see setbacks as opportunities to improve
- 64Social tuningthe process of adopting others' attitudes. Can be unconscious. Tune to views of people we like and reject those of people we don't
- 65IngratiationForm of impression management. Using flattery to make yourself likeable, particularly to those of higher status (e.g. via compliments, agreement, sympathy etc.). Can backfire if they know you’re insincere.
- 66behavioural self-handicappingMore extreme version of self-handicapping. Actions reduce change of success, so you can blame obstacles for failure (E.g. drugs, alcohol, reduced effort, failure to prepare). More characteristic of men
- 67reported self-handicappingmaking up excuses for why failure may occur (e.g. "I'm not feeling well", "I'm just so nervous"). Can lead person to believe own excuses and thus not try as hard
- 68terror management theoryin order to protect yourself from fears about your death, you embrace cultural views that let you feel like a meaningful contribution to a purposeful world. Those with high self-esteem acts as buffer against these fears, and thus are less troubled by them
- 69effects of narcissismexcessive self-love and lack of empathy for others. Violent, aggressive, and disliked by those that know them. Less likely to achieve academic or business success. Possibly less happy, as people are generally happier when they show attention and concern for others than for themselves
- 70Endowment effectinfusing your own possessions with special significance and positivity. Is an infusion of the positivity you feel toward yourself
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- Social Psych Fichas sobre Self, creado por Jamie Otten el 24/10/2018.
- Creado por
- Jamie Otten
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