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chapter 6-research methods (UNFINISHED) PAPER 1
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- 1what is operationalisation?when variables are clearly defined in terms of how to measure them. this means the variables are specific to avoid confusion
- 2what is a hypothesis?a statement stating the relationship between the variables as stated by the theory. states the outcome of the experiment
- 3what is the difference between a hypothesis and a theory?A hypothesis is either a suggested explanation or a reasoned prediction
a theory is a tested unifying explanation - 4what are extraneous variables?any extra variables that impact the results. these cannot be changed however awareness is important when looking at results
- 5what does demand characteristics mean?participants guessing the nature of the experiment and adjusting their behaviour accordingly. they do this unconsciously. participants do this to be the perfect participant but actually jeopardise the results
- 6what is internal validity?any effect on the DV is because of the IV-testing for what its meant to be testing
- 7what is external validity?if the experiment's findings can be applied to real life
- 8what types of experiments have high internal validity?-lab
-quasi - 9what type of experiments have high external validity?-field
-natural - 10what are the conditions of a lab experiment?-controlled environment
-researcher manipulates the IV (looks to see effect)
-researcher measures effect on IV (they manipulate it) on the DV - 11what are the conditions of a field experiment?-takes place in natural setting, everyday setting relevant to the people involved
-IV manipulated to see effect on DV - 12what is a natural experiment?performed in a natural setting relevant to the people involved
-change in IV NOT brought on by the experimenter (would've happened if the researcher wasn't there)
-pre-existing IV
-can take place in lab/field setting - 13what is the main difference between a field and a natural experiment?a natural experiment has a naturally occurring and changing IV whilst a field experiment manipulates the IV artificially
- 14what are the conditions for a quasi experiment?-pre-existing natural IV
-carried out under controlled conditions - 15what are the strengths of a lab experiment?-strong control of variables
-easy to replicate because of control
-good internal validity - 16limitations of a lab experiment?-unnatural ,low external validity, low mundane realism
-may demand characteristics (cannot say If the IV actually effected the DV) - 17strengths of a natural experiment?-provides chance to study events that cannot be artificially recreated dues to ethical reasons
-high external validity (can be applied to real life as situation is real)
-no demand characteristics - 18limitations of a natural experiments-naturally occurring events rarely happen, not much chance to study
-many extraneous variables, not sure if IV actually effects DV - 19strengths of a field experiments-high mundane realism/external validity, experiment is natural
-more authentic behaviour as people are in their natural surroundings
-participants usually unaware of experiment - 20limitations of a field experiments-because of increased realism there is a loss of control
-cannot be replicated because of low control
-ethical issues, participants cannot give consent to being studied as they are unaware they are being observed - 21strengths of quasi experiments-carried out in controlled conditions can be replicated
-good internal validity - 22limitations of a quasi experiment-maybe confounding variables as they cannot randomly allocate people to participants to conditions
- 23what are aims?describe the purpose of the investigation they are developed from a theory
- 24what are the two different types of hypothesis?directional and non directional
- 25what is the difference between directional and non directional?directional-predicts that there which why the results will go
non-directional-there will be a difference but not which way it will go - 26what is a null hypothesis?states that there will be no difference in in results/any difference will be down to chance
- 27what is meant by investigator effects?-any effects on the participants as result of the researches behaviour e.g
-smile encouraging the participant to speak more
-leading questions meaning the participants veer to what the researcher is experimenting for - 28how can we reduce investigators effects/influence? and what does this mean?-randomisation
-randomly assign people to group
-generate random word list
- conditions in experiment can be randomly determined - 29how can we reduce extraneous variables? and how do we do this?-standardisation
-using same instructions and procedures for all participants
-same environment, treatment and experience for participants - 30what does experimental designs mean?how participants are used in the experiments
- 31what does "independent groups" mean?2 different groups experience 2 different IVs
- 32what does "repeated measures" mean?all participants experience all the conditions
- 33how do we get the middle ground between independent groups and repeated measures?-matched pairs
-participants are matched together based on the variable/thing being tested - 34what are the random sampling techniques?-random
-systematic random
-stratified random
-volunteer - 35what are the non random sampling techniques?-quota
-purposive
-opportunity
-snowball - 36how do you conduct random sampling?-sample is chosen at random therefore everyone has an equal chance of being picked (better mix of your target population)
-select from a sampling frame (list of names)
-sampling frame must be representative of the target population - 37how does a researcher obtain a volunteer sample/volunteering sampling? what does a volunteer sample enable the researcher to do?-individuals offer to be part of the sample
-easy to do and can reach a variety of the population - 38what is stratified sampling?-classifying the population into groups
-choose sample which consists of people from each different group in the same ratio that they are in the target population - 39what is systematic sampling?-choose random number
-systematically choosing people from a sample frame
-every nth person is chosen - 40how do you get a snowball sample? when is it often used?-non probability technique
-existing participants get their friends and family to join
-often used when access to the population is difficult - 41what is quota sampling?-a stratified sample where the selection is not random
-researcher looks for the right - 42what is purposive sampling?researcher chooses individuals or cases that fit the nature of the research
- 43what is opportunity sampling?-researcher chooses individuals/cases that suit the nature of the research
- 44weaknesses for random sampling-sample may be unrepresentative
-time consuming
-list of target population may be hard to get - 45strengths of random samplingfree from research bias as they have no control over who they are choosing
- 46weaknesses of stratified sampling-cannot reflect all the ways people are different through the identified strata
- 47stratified sampling strengths-avoids researcher bias
-once target population has been divided, numbers of participants are randomly selected
- findings can be generalised - 48weaknesses of systematic sampling?-could have an androcentric sample/female
- 49strengths of systematic sampling-avoids researcher bias
-usually fairly representative - 50what are the weaknesses of opportunity sampling?has 2 forms of bias:
-unrepresentative
-researcher chooses participants - 51strengths of opportunity sampling-convenient
-less costly
-saves time - 52weaknesses of a volunteer sample-asking for volunteers may attract a certain type of person which could effect results (volunteer bias)
- 53strengths of a volunteer sample-easy
-less effort
-less time consuming - 54why do ethical issues arise in psychology?conflict/dilemma in researchers and participants rights in breached. this can be harmful
- 55what is informed consent?-participants should be aware of the researchers aims/procedure/ have the right to withdraw and what their data will be used for
-participants use this information to make and informed decision into partaking in the research - 56what could having informed consent from the participants be a draw back?makes the participants act less natural/demand characteristics (from the researcher's point of view)
- 57what is deception (ethical issues) what can participants not give as a result?-deliberately misleading/withholding information from participants about any aspect of the experiment
-cannot give informed consent - 58what can deception but justified?when participants are not in danger from the experiment
- 59what is protection from harm? what is arguably the most important feature of protection from harm?-sort of agreement between participant and researcher
-as a result of involvement, participants should not be placed at risk then they would do in real life
-protection from humiliation/inadequate/physical harm
-right to withdraw - 60what is privacy and confidentiality?-participants have right to control their personal info (right to privacy)
-is this is invaded then confidentiality should be protected
-confidentiality refers to our right to have personal data protected (under data protection laws) - 61what do researchers have to do with the BPS?follow guidelines of there ethics when conducting research
- 62how can participants make sure they have informed consent?-participants should be issued a consent letter (includes all relevant info to make informed decision)
-for under 16s they should seek parental permission - 63what are the other ways other than signing for it?-presumptive consent=similar group to participant is asked to give the experiment the go ahead
-prior general consent=participant gives permission to be in a number of different experiment including one in which they are being deceived in
-retrospective consent-consent asked for in debriefing - 64how would researchers deal with deception and protection from harm?-during full debrief=told aims/details not supplied during the study
-participants told where their info Is going, told of right to withdraw data (important for retrospective)
-should be reassured that their behaviour displayed during experiment was normal
-if needed researcher should offer counselling - 65how should researchers deal with confidentiality?-personal details must be protected (however usually maintain anonymity)
-in case studies researchers often use numbers/initials when writing up and investigation
-in debriefing participants reminded that their data is protected - 66what is cost-benefit analysis?the responsibility of ethics committee to weigh up costs and benefits of research proposals to see if it should go ahead
- 67-what could be possible benefits? (cost-benefits analysis) -possible costs?-include value/ground-breaking
-damaging effect on participants/reputation of psychology - 68-what is a pilot study? -aims? -benefits?-a small scale version of the investigation that takes place before the actual, allows to road test by:
-(aims)= check procedures ,materials measuring scales, identify potential problems allows for researcher to modify actual if needed
-saves time and money in the long run - 69why would pilot studies be helpful with: -questionnaires/interviews? -observational studies?-test out questions to see if they are ambiguous/confusing
-checking coding systems, training observers - 70-what is a single blind study? -benefits? -costs?-participants wont know the aim of study at the beginning/other details
-eliminates demand characteristics
-deception/informed consent - 71what is a double blind procedure? when is it commonly used?-neither the participant nor the researcher know the aims of investigation (third party conducts the experiment
- drug trials - 72-what is the experimental group/condition? -what is the control group?-exposed to the independent variable
-does not receive the testing variable
-compare independent with control - 73why are observations useful to researchers?-provide insight into peoples actions without asking
-can study participants in natural conditions= can study more complex interactions between variables in a more natural way - 74what are the observational techniques?-controlled/naturalistic
-overt/covert
-participant/non-participant - 75-what is a naturalist observation? -what is a controlled observation?-watching and recording behaviour in a setting it would naturally occur
-watching and recording behaviour in a structured environment - 76-what are covert observations? -what are overt observations?-participants behaviour is watched without consent or their knowledge
-participants watched with their consent - 77-what are participant observations? -what are non-participant observations?-participant= researcher joins in the experiment
-non-participant=remains outside of the group - 78strengths/limitations of naturalistic observations-benefits=high external validity
-limitations=extraneous variables (lacks internal validity) - 79strengths/limitations of controlled observations?-strengths=easily replicated, high internal validity
-limitations=low external validity - 80strengths/limitations of overt observations-strength=removes participant reactivity
increases validity
-limitations=unethical: informed consent, deception - 81what is participant reactivity?the tendency for participants to react to cues by the researcher or the research environment
- 82strengths/limitations of overt observations-strengths=ethical
-limitations=demand characteristics/participant reactivity
decreases validity - 83strengths/limitations of participant observations-strengths=increases insight into lives/behaviour of participants
increase validity of findings
-limitations=lose objectivity
going native - 84strengths/limitations of non-participant observations-strengths=remain objective less chance of going native
-limitations=lose valuable insight into lives of participants - 85what does 'going native' mean?no objective psychological distance between participants and researcher
- 86what are the issues in the design of observations?-whether the observation is structured/unstructured
-behavioural categories
-sampling methods used - 87what is a structured/unstructured observational designunstructured= write down everything
structured=write down target behaviours - 88what is meant by behavioural categories? and what should behavioural categories be?-used in structured only=break down target behaviour into behavioural categories/behaviour checklist
-similar to operationalisation
-target behaviours must be observable, unambiguous, measurable, categories should be exclusive - 89why is continuous recoding in unstructured observational design impractical and what would researchers use instead? define them-cannot record everything/might miss important details
-event sampling/time sampling
event=number of times particular behaviour happens
time=recording behaviour in pre-established time frame - 90strengths/limitation of structured observation design-strengths=quantitave data(numerical)
easy to compare data
systematic
-limitations=lack of validity (doesn't tell us why behaviours happen) - 91strengths/limitations of unstructured observation design-strengths=broaden understanding
qualitative data (descriptive/rich in detail)
-limitations=observer bias
difficult to analyse
might miss important details
only useful for small scale - 92strengths/limitations of sampling methods in observational designevent sampling
-strengths=when target behaviour/event infrequent as opposed to time sampling
-limitations=if event too complex researcher may overlook important details
time sampling
-strengths=effective at reducing number of made observations
-limitations=sampled event/behaviour may be a one off - 93why is it not recommended that a researcher conducts a observational study alone? what should they aim to achieve to tackle this?-may miss important details, bias (only write down details that confirm their opinions/hypothesis
-inter-observer reliability (observations by at least two researcher) - 94what does inter-observer reliability do to the data recording?more objective and unbiased
- 95how would you train observers to establish inter-observer reliability?-familiarised with behavioural categories
-observe behaviour at same time (maybe as part of pilot study)
-observers compare data, discuss differences in interpretations
-analyse data, inter-observer reliability calculated by correlating each pair of observations made and an overall figure is produced - 96why would researchers use questionnaires?-assess thoughts/feelings
-could also be used In an experiment to assess the dependant variable - 97what is the difference between open and closed questions? and what type of data do they produce respectively?open=could have a range of answers, respondents can answer in anyway (produce qualitative data, rich in detail but hard to compare/analyse)
closed=fixed number of possible answers (produce quantitative data, numeric, easy to compare, lacks detail) - 98what are the two broad types of interview? and describe what they are-structured=pre-determined set of questions, asked in fixed order
-unstructured=works like a convo, no set questions. there is a general aim that a certain topic will be discussed - 99what is a self report technique and what can they be?-any method where a person is asked to state/explain feelings/opinions/behaviour/experience with a certain topic
-can be a questionnaire/interview - 100what is a semi-structured interview?-majority of interviews done in this format
-a list of questions that have been worked out in advance but interviewers are also free to ask follow up questions - 101strengths/limitations of questionnaires-strengths=cost effective, time effective, effort effective
data usually easy to analyse (statistical analysis)
-limitations=demand characteristics
social desirability bias
response bias=acquiescence bias - 102strengths/limitations of structured interviews-strength=easy to replicate (compare data)
standardised format
-limitations=lacks detail - 103strengths/limitations of unstructured interviews-strengths= more flexible
more detail (easy to gain insight to participant)
-limitations=can obtain irrelevant info
firm conclusions may be difficult
social desirability
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- A level (research methods) Psychology Fichas sobre chapter 6-research methods (UNFINISHED) PAPER 1, creado por haniah shujahat el 07/10/2017.
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- haniah shujahat
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