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Language Variety
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- 1Peter Trudgill, Norwich Study 1974Lower classes pronounced alveolar consonant, 'walkin'', upper classes pronounced velar nasal, 'walking'
- 2The North and South Gap - wealth, employment and Standard language-Since the 1970s, a gap has been growing between North and South England; decline in wealth for North, and increase in wealth in South. South encourage Standard language for employment; Northerns do not
- 3Migrants in Milton Keynes; typical pattern of migrantsMigrants came to Milton Keynes in the 1950s for a hope of somewhere better to live; very open network, which is a typical pattern of migrants
- 4Them as Demonstrative Pronoun'Look at them spiders'
- 5'What' As Subject Relative Pronoun'That fish what he caught'
- 6'Never' As Past Tense Negator'No I never, Charlotte!!'
- 7MetathesisChanging medial parts of a word, e.g. 'foilage' from 'foliage'
- 8General Patterns in Occupational Jargon-Phrasal Verbs - verb+particle, such as 'I'm on it'
-Broadened terms - mouse now can mean a computer mouse
-Dysphemisms such as the 'departure lounge' aforementioned - 9Rhotacismadding R sounds
- 10IsoglossA geographical boundary of particular linguistic features
- 11LenitionThe softening of stops - 'block' like 'loch' - Liverpudlian
- 12Features of Geordie Dialect (continued); isolated, Scotland, merger, traditions, natural-As Newcastle isn't geographically isolated, it plays into the accommodation theory as words have died out easily
-Geordie picked up Scottish lexical items, as it's on the border with Scotland
-Nurse/Square merger
-Dialectal changes as words die out and traditions fade
-It is natural for language to change - progress versus decay - 13'Grassroots strike back'Rosewarne's comment on estuary English in 1984
- 14Features of Geordie Dialect (continued); changing, distinction, understanding-Reflectionist - Geordie dialect changes with the times
-One of the most distinctive accents of the British Isles
-Geordie have had to accommodate their dialect in order to be better understood - 15Howard Giles' Capital Punishment Experiment-Giles presented five groups of students with an identical set of arguments on capital punishment (mixed guise)
-One group read a printed text, other four were oral presentations spoken in different accents
-One group heard an RP speaker, another a Somerset speaker, spoken in different accents - 16Qualities of RPReceived pronunciation is geographically non-regional, and has qualities that are no longer desirable
- 17Howard Giles' Capital Punishment Experiment (continued)-Students were most impressed with the RP accent
-Regional accents scored most highly
-Student were more likely to change their view when hearing regional accents rather than RP - 18Rosenstock (rose in stock) - Greying WorldThere is now too big of a linguistic gap between the young and old for sufficient communication
- 19Jenny Cheshire, Peer Groups, 1980-Cheshire identified eleven non-standard features and measured the frequency in boys and girls' speech in adventure playground
-Focused on grammatical variants
-Group A was middle class and disapproved of criminal activities
-Group B was working class and approved of criminal activities - 20Jenny Cheshire, Peer Groups, 1980-Cheshire identified eleven non-standard features and measured the frequency in boys and girls' speech in adventure playground
-Focused on grammatical variants
-Group A was middle class and disapproved of criminal activities
-Group B was working class and approved of criminal activities - 21Rise-Fall IntonationTypical of Estuary English
- 22Linguistic IntegrationWhen migrants learn the native language of their settlement
- 23Language RepertoireThe idea that everyone can have plurilingual competence
- 24Jenny Cheshire - Peer Groups in Reading, 1980-More use of non-standard features within Group B (working class group)
-Cheshire concluded that patterns of non-standard usage was important for younger children to identify themselves as part of a group - 25Trudgill on Non-Standard English-It is not a language, but just a variety; not an accent, but a dialect
- 26Post-Creole ContinuumOnce a creole has been established, it will evolve according to the culture and influences, such as Sue Fox's MEYD
- 27Linguistic ImperalismTransferring a language to other countries in order to demonstrate power
- 28Features of Estuary; happY, 'hewwo', 'tishoo', 'mawth'-HappY tensing
-L-Vocalisation when an L sound is replaced by a vowel or semi-vowel to velarise (retracting tongue from palate), e.g. 'hewwo'
-Yod Coalescence - blending of gliding vowels 'y' with stops, e.g. 'tishoo'
-Mouth-Vowel Monothongs - 'mouth' becomes 'mawth' - 29GlobishThe simplification of the most common English words to be spoken by second-language users
- 30Features of Estuary English (continued); 'what is tha'?', divergence-T-glottalling - taking away T-stops, e.g. 'what is tha'?'
-Glotalling - metathetical removal of glottal sounds, e.g. 'wa'er'
-Spoken around Thames estuary/South East
-Tries to diverge from RP - 31Kachru's Model of Global English-The inner circle= English in its original spread
-Outer circle= English spread through colonisation by Britain in Africa/Asia where English is not the native tongue
-Expanding circle= English plays no historical or governmental role; it is only used for international communication (China, Brazil) - 32Barrie Rhodes on Why Dialects Differ; language breaks, moving away, W-Language breaks into dialects as populations spread over larger areas
-People who move furthest away from their homeland preserve older patterns of speech
-We still pronounce 'W' the Old English way
-Whereas Germany pronounce it like 'V' - 33McArthur's Model of Global EnglishInner circle= word Standard English
-Next circle= made of regional standards that are emerging
-Outer layer= local varieties that have similarities with emerging/regional standards
-English spread through colonisation - 34William Labov - Martha' Vineyard Study-Martha's Vineyard is an island on the north east coast of America
'Labov interviewed 69 people from different ages, ethnic groups etc
-Labov conversed with the participants, leading them towards uttering certain vowels
-He found that locals pronounced dipthongs with a more central point, and that participants from the ages of 30-60 were more inclined to do this, than the young or old - 35Barrie Rhodes on Why Dialects Differ (continued); English triangle-Dialect spoken by wealthiest/most powerful selection of the population takes over as 'Standard' dialect;
-This is true of the English triangle between London, Oxford and Cambridge - 36Linguistic DiversityA way of representing the amount of living languages; especially seen in Canada where English and French are the national languages
- 37International Phonetic AlphabetOver 160 symbols used to represent the sounds in spoken language
-That symbol that look a bit like a droopy n, is the one Trudgill experiments on - 38Mark Sebba on London Jamaican (continued); 16th century, pidgins, code-switching-In the 16th century, people were brought over from the Caribbean to English during slave trading
-Jamaicans spoke minimal English, therefore the Jamaicans had to create a pidgin to communicate with British natives. This is where code-switching groups from - 39Rosewarne on Estuary English-Estuary coined the term 'estuary English' in 1984, and described it as a 'variety of modified regional speech'
-It was first spoken by the banks of the Thames and its estuary, but since then has spread Westerly, even to Cornwall
-Setter now described 'estuary English' as an 'umbrella dialect' - 40DecreolizationWhen creoles become standardised
- 41RecreolizationWhen creoles are modified, e.g. natives from the West Indies came to Britain
- 42Sue Fox on MEYD (continued); students-Students from white, Anglo-Saxon backgrounds spoke the same dialect as Arabic, or South Americans etc
- 43Sociolinguistic Maturation-The age at which a speaker becomes less susceptible to the influence of different varieties on their own language usage
-Sets in around late teens-early twenties
-Children are much more likely to modify or vary their language - 44Colloquial Language Study at King's College London, 1995-Research on which colloquialisms had the most synonyms
-Drink/drugs lexis had the most synonyms - 17.46%, e.g. 'hammered', 'bladdered' etc - 45William Labov - New York Study, 1960s-Linguistic variables are attached to socio-economic class
-Most affluent New Yorkers would pronounce the dental fricatives; 'TH' in 'thirty third street';
-Whereas least affluent would use a 't' form;
-Middle class would use a variable in-between these two - 46Language VariationVariation is caused by the way social groups are formed by their shared experience
- 47Peter Trudgill on Standard English (continued); D,C,S-Standard= determination, codification and stabilisation
-Standard is not defined - capital or non-capital? - 48Dialect PrestigeBasolect= low prestige
Mecrolect= medium prestige
Acrolect= high prestige - 49Basil Bernstein - Elaborative and Restrictive Codes-Working class speak in a restricted code
-Middle class speak in an elaborative code
-Elaborative code= a vast amount of linguistic alternatives
Restricted code- little to no other alternatives - very predictive
Restricted codes represent a communion based culture (solidarity) - and should not be disvalued - 50Ellen Ryan - Status and Solidarity-These represent the attitudes that people have towards different speakers
-Status= language independence
-Solidarity= language community - 51Hopper & ZahnRegional varieties score highest in terms of solidarity
- 52Paul Kerswill's Research on Milton Keynes and Reading - Dialectal Levelling; vowels-Emergence of vowel-fronting in Milton Keyne,which is similar to estuary English
-The same can be said for Reading - 53Jane Stuart-SmithThere are estuary features in the Glaswegian accent, such as TH-fronting
- 54Paul Kerswill on Koineisation in Milton Keynes; study, conclusions, network-Kerswill recorded fourty-eight Milton Keynes-born children, from three different ages groups (four, eight and twelve); the caregivers of each child, and elderly residents
-Found that koineisation occurs in the children's generation
-Social network characteristic are crucial to the outcomes of koineisation - 55Paul Kerswill on Koineisation (continued); 'do', generations-Longer term changes of koineisation= auxiliary of the word 'do'
-Koineisation usually takes two or three generations to complete - 56Paul Kerswill on Koineisation (continued); change, settlements, koines, external, internal-Koineisation leads to dramatic, rapid change
-It occurs in new settlements which people have migrated to from different language areas
-'Koines'= speech of 'new towns', such as Milton Keynes
-External social factors of change such as migration
-Internal factors of change such as structure of language and phonology occur because of a structural imbalance - 57Paul Kerswill on Koineisation (continued); older generations, emergence, 1950s-Older generations were unaffected by Kerswill's study
-Koines emerge separately from source dialects; which do not interfere with their use
-Milton Keynes was created as a city in the 1950s - its population has quadrupled - 58Aziz Corporation, 2003-An image consultant firm researched the perception amongst leading business people
-Researched along the lines of the status and solidarity model
-Half of the businessmen found regional accents to be a disadvantage in business
-Scottish accent was seen as useful; whilst the Cockney accent was seen as dishonest - 59Laughter Study - Lesley Harbige, Aberdeen University-Asked four-thousand people to listen to the same joke told in eleven regional accents (matched guise methodology)
-The Brummie accent was considered the funniest, but also the least intelligent - 60Intelligence Study - Dr Lance Workman of Bath Spa University-Asked fourty-eight people to compare accents
-Aim of the study was to find out about stereotypes
-Compared Yorkshire accent with Brummie accent and RP, whilst looking at photos of models, they then repeated this in silence - 61Intelligence Study - Dr Lance Workman of Bath Spa University (continued)-RP was ranked as the highest by fourty-eight participants
-Brummie accent scored the lowest intelligence rating
-Conclusion: accent had no impact on beauty, yet it significantly affected the rating of intelligence - 62William Labov - Overt & Covert PrestigeOvert Prestige= the way language forms acquire prestige and acceptance. Is promoted by society
Covert Prestige= language forms acquiring prestige because they differ from accepted values - 63Milroy's Study of Open & Closed Networks in Belfast-Studied closed-networks of high density
-Gave each village a network score depending on the closeness
-Closed-network - where contacts know everyone
-Closed-networks were defined by Milroy as 'norm enforcers', as a high network score correlated with the high rate vernacular/non-Standard forms - 64Jean Lave and Etienne Wenger - Communities in Practice, 1991The idea that participating with others in using a language variety is central to learning and strengthening the variety
- 65Creoles-Nativised by children, unlike pidgins
- 66Mark Sebba on London Jamaican; 17th and 18th centuries, sugar plantations, patois-Jamaica's creole roots from the impact of British colonists in the 17th and 18th centuries;
-The use of West-African slaves working sugar plantations in Jamaica affected this. The language that then ensured between the English and Jamaicans formed the Jamaican creole
-Patois= London Jamaican+Jamaican creole+cockney+RP - 67Mark Sebba on London Jamaican (continued); verb aspects, immigrants; today...-Verb aspects are created from the addition of words, e.g. 'wen't' is a main verb to create a past participle, e.g. 'me wen't go to da shops'
-London Jamaican has evolved for the language needs of immigrants that have settled in England
-Today, Jamaicans speaks a weaker form of this creole with varying degrees of standards - 68David Crystal's Language of Technology: Rebuswords represented graphologically
- 69David Crystal's Language of Technology: Nonce Formationmisspelled words deliberately put together
- 70Mark Sebba on Jamaican Creole (continued); suffixes, copulas-Tenses and aspects are shown by adding additional words or particles to the main verb, rather than by adding inflectional suffixes as found in Standard English
-They use small particles as copulas, e.g. 'deh'='is' - 71David Crystal's Word of Technology: Eye-Dialect FormNon-standard spelling for pronunciation - George P. Krapp
- 72Mark Sebba's Study on Catford Girl's PosseeJamaican girls are the main promoters of change, as they use dense amounts of code-switching
- 73David Crystal's Language of Technology: Concord Rule Breakingwhen agreements are impoverished, e.g. 'he ain't'
- 74David Crystal's Language of Technology: Non-Standard Symbol Combinationse.g. ';)' and '@'
- 75Code-SwitchingSwitching between different language varieties or languages within an utterance
- 76David Crystal's Language of Technology: Internal Sentence Punctuation'Omg im on tumblr cant breathe what the hell is life i cant even'
- 77David Crystal's Language of Technology: Emotive Punctuation SentencesE.g. 'Love mi nan!!!!!!!'
- 78The British Empire & Global English; interactions, 'kangaroo'-The English language changed as the Empire moved across the world, as the settlers in England interacted with the natives;
-Therefore, new words were added to the English vocabulary such as 'kangaroo' - 79David Crystal's Rule For Technology, 2001-No rules for emailing;
-Crystal made the rule that you should email everyone as though you were emailing your mother - 80Texting - LogogramA grapheme that represents a word or morpheme
- 81David Crystal - 2B Or Not 2B-Some texts are grammatically complex
- 82John Humphrys on Texting'Texters are vandals to our language'
- 83John Sutherland on Texting'Texting is penmanship for illiterates'
- 84Migration; languages in London, Indian and West Indies, 1700s-More than three hundred languages are spoken in London
-Immigrants from the Indian subcontinent and West Indies have added variety and diversity, due to the slave trade;
-And British Empire expanded in 1700s, where English was made the dominant language in Africa, India, Australia etc - 85David Crystal's 2B Or Not 2B on Initialisms-Initialisms such as 'IOU' date back to 1618
-Johnathan Swift - abbreviation was a 'barbarous custom' - 86Dominant Forms in Global EnglishBritish and American English are the most dominant forms of English
- 87Peter Stevens on Global EnglishEnglish across the world may lead to the extinction of many other languages
- 88Australia Soap Influence on EnglishThe rising intonation in Britain was inspired by Australian soaps in the 1990s
- 89Hinglish & Engrish-Hinglish is taught across many schools in India
-Engrish is the summation of the idiosyncratic ways that East Asian languages translate Asian concepts into English
-Phonetic patterns in Asia are very different to England - no common ground
-Symbol based structures of Asian countries are incompatible with English - 90Chinese Pidgin English-The world 'pidgin' comes from a Chinese pronunciation of 'business'
-CPE began as early as the 17th century - 91Features of Irish; aka, 'tum-ti', 'happenin'', rhotic, vernacular, dipthongs-Also known as hiberno-English
-Trochaic 'tum-ti'
-G-dropping
-Rhotic - strong R sounds, influenced by old French
-Irish is part of the oldest vernacular in Europe
-Breaking of vowel dipthongs, e.g. 'near' - 92Pidgins-No native speakers
-Evolved from a main source language, but is less grammatically developed
-Spoken in particular contexts, rather than in a native context - 93Creoles-Grew out of pidgins
-More established than pidgins, as second generations are beginning to use them - 94Irish (continued); island, syntax structure, 'I come home for the Christmas', 'do' and 'be', 'they do running fast', 'getting wash on'-Since Ireland is an island (woah lol), it has resisted dialectal levelling (Paul Kerswill)
-Old English syntactical sentence structure (V,S,O)
-Extended use of the definite article, e.g. 'I come home for the Christmas'
-Verbs 'do' and 'be' are paired as auxiliary verbs
-Forms present continuous tense, e.g. 'they do running very fast'
-Prepositional phrases, e.g. 'getting a wash on' - 95William Labov on American English-Double /t/ was modeled on British patterns
-Boston, like Liverpool was easily influenced due to its docks and trade
-American English was propelled when American gained independence from Britain in Philadelphia
-America wanted to sound more British before World War I, and less so after World War I;
-America then gained a national identity through language - 96Features of The Black Country; prestige, style, conjunctions, 'fu'-The accent is generally perceived as a basolect
-Middle of Britain
-Generally speak with a negative capability
-Syndeton- use of many conjunctions
-Lenition - taking away stops, e.g. 'for' becomes 'fu' - 97Pluricentric Languages; national identity, no dominance-A language with several standard variations, e.g. 'American English', 'Australian English'
-Usually arises when the language and national identity of speakers do not coincide
-English is a 'symmetrical' language, since there is no clear cultural dominance between the different languages - 98Paul Kerswill's Research on Reading's Accent; sounding more like...,Older people and young people's accents; London-Reading's accent is changing to sound more like a London accent
-Older people have the Berkshire accent, which sounds more like a West Country accent;
-Younger people have the London accent, due to the expansion of London - 99Paul Kerswill's Research on Reading's Accent (continued); commuting, prevention of homogenisation-As commuting and travelling becomes easier, there is dialectal levelling
-However, close-knit communities prevent a pure, homogenised British voice - 100The Evolution of Global English; first language, contributions-English has been adopted as the first common language of several countries of business;
-Internet and multimedia has contributed to this - 101Sue Fox- Multi-Ethnic Youth Dialects; influences-Research focused on the dialects of youths from a variety of different ethnic groups across London
-Strong influences drawn from the influences of several other languages, creoles and culture sources - 102Paul Baker on Polari-Focused on variety used from 1930s-1970s
-Included borrowings from Italian
-Rhyme/backslang - 103Leet; mode, formed, characters, spelling, 'creamage'-Almost an exclusively written mode form
-Formed in the 1980s
-Has alphanumeric characters
-Ever-changing spelling so information cannot be found
-Bound morphemes are used to create abstract noun forms, such as 'creamage' - 104Features Of Essex Accent; vowels, migration, hybrid between, 'first', W, V and T, wa'er-Raised vowels
-People moved out of central London to East London - bringing the cockney accent with them
-A mix of the cockney and Estuary accent
-TH-fronting - 'thirst' becomes 'first'
-W, V and T often interchanged
-Glottal Stop - 'wa'er' - 105Michael Halliday on Anti-Languages-Halliday formed nine criteria for an anti-language; one of them being that;
-An anti-society is a society which is set up within another society as an alternative
-Metaphorical modes of expression are the norm
-Anti-languages are the lingua franca of an anti-society - 106Cryptolects; Tuscany-Came from Italy
-Used by priests in Tuscany for both secular and religious people
-Now a secret language often used by drug dealers - 107CantThe language used by thieves
- 108Malcolm Petyt and Social Climbing in Bradford, West Yorkshire (1985)-Concentrated on initial H being dropped (H-dropping) and measured its instances
-The lower the socioeconomic group, the more occurrences there were of H-dropping
-In social mobility, speech would be adapted towards RP speech (less H-dropping) - 109Features of Cockney English; 'bovva', ''at', 'wa'er', 'cowt'-Loss of dental fricatives- 'bother' becomes 'bovva'
-H-stopping
-Glottal Stops - water=wa'er
-Dipthong alterations - 'coat' becomes 'cowt' - 110Prison Argot; original definition, incarcerate's slang, endemic-Argot originally referred to 'brotherhood'
'Many incarcerates involved before sentence to prison with their own slang;
-There are therefore combinations between institute-specific and criminal terminologies
-Incarceration produces an endemic in group language - 111Received Pronunciation; 2%, a D, positive prestige, Trugill-Around 2% of Britons today speak RP in its purest form
-A sociolect, not a dialect
-Positive Prestige - tendency to align our idiolects to a favoured dialect
-Sociologically, women are more likely to adopt this pattern (Trudgill) - 112Prison Argot (continued); Northern and Southern states-Glossaries from Southern states contain Spanish terms, such as 'placa' for 'guard';
-North include African American slang such as 'fish' for a new inmate - 113Features of Geordie; coal mining, assimilation, village, Kevin Watson, M & U-Much of Geordie has died out; coal miners used to talk in 'pitmatic'
-There has been an assimilation of dialects to form a language standardisation
-Dialectal changes as we become part of the 'global village'
-Kevin Watson - 'Newcastle is no longer a dialectal island'
-Modernisation and Urbanisation move dialects closer together - 114Features of Geordie (continued); class, preservation; not viable, schooling-Employment and class are now less relevant factors
-Dialects tend to be best preserved in rural, close-knit communities
-Not viable in an industrial city like Newcastle
-Schooling is an anti-dialectal force as it encourages Standard English - 115York; heart of..., lexicon remained from...-York was at the heart of Danelaw, which was the viking kingdom in Britain
-Much lexicon has remained from Old Norse - 116Navy Jackspeak; 'abeam'-Sociolect of the Royal Navy
-Mainly lexical and non-standard, e.g. 'abeam' means something that is opposite/adjacent to something else - 117Features of Liverpudlian; influence, sing-song, 't', filler, 'worra', guttural, 'bOOk'-Has a significant influence from Irish speakers
-Prosody - a sing-song way of talking
-Affricated Consonants - 't'
-'Ay' as a filler
-Assimilation - 'worra' instead of 'want a'
-Guttural dropping
-Elongated medial vowels, e.g. 'bOOK' - 118Adam Fox on Medical Jargon; register, 'biparental', 'departure lounge'-Adopts more than one register
-Latinate forms, such as 'biparental'
-Dysphemisms such as 'departure lounge' used to refer to the geriatric ward of hospitals - 119Features of Liverpudlian (continued); 'our mam', Kevin Watson, Paul Kerswill, postal town, homogeneous accent, happY tensing-HappY tensing
-Substitution of possessive pronoun to collective pronoun, e.g. 'our mam'
-Kevin Watson - 'Liverpool remains a dialectal island'
-Paul Kerswill - 'Liverpool has resisted dialectal levelling'
-A postal town; used to trade, therefore language is fast-spoken and economic
-Loss of a homogeneous Northern accent - 120Types of PronunciationNurse/Square Merger: Liverpool, Dublin, Belfast
Mirror/Nearer Merger: Dublinese
Cheer/Chair Merger: Early Modern English sequence now used in the North
Stir/Steer Merger: West Country, e.g. 'ear'= 'ur' - 121Epenthesisadding extra letters, e.g. 'doggles'
- 122Epenthetic Inversionremoving letters
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- Fichas sobre Language Variety, creado por Emma Madden el 26/05/2013.
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