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DD307 OU Social Psychology - Emotion
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- 1Cognitive social perspective interpretation of emotionAssumes individual composed of various interacting cognitive processes
By systematically studying how processes cause people to react in certain ways in certain situations it's possible to find out more about their function in a generalisable way - 2DP interpretation of emotionLooks at ways emotion constructed in discourse
Emotion = conceptual resources deployed for conversational purposes
Ontologically not concerned with existence of 'inner life' or 'inner processes'
Focus on use of discourse & language & emotional life as expressed in conversation - 3Phenomenological interpretation of emotionFocus on emotions that people are aware of & can describe
The emotional experience - not causes or motives
Conceptualises people via their lived experiences
Assumes experiences can be accessed & shared - 4Power & Situated KnowledgeMainstream research:
history of deception
power of researcher seldom questioned
research situated within theoretical traditions with focus on individual or social - methods have constructed nature of emotions
Discursive:
shows how emotions used within social & cultural contexts
some have power to construct which emotions are socially perceived as right/wrong (boys don't cry) - 5Individual-social DualismEmotion theories on continuum regarding emphasis on individual or social factors
Early theorists - social context mainly irrelevant
Others have seen it having influence on emotions
Only DP attempt to dissolve dualism by showing individual emotions are constructed & applied using culturally accessible discourses - 6Agency-structure DualismResearch suggests we have biological propensity to experience emotions
Some might be automatic responses to dangerous stimuli
We can draw on socially available discourses to use emotional talk for purposes - but these choices are constrained - 7Boys don't cryBoys learn not to cry - social pressures incl. bullying
A/S - choose not to cry? Emotional - questionable how in control a boy is if crying. But many men 'cant' remember last time they cried (proud, masculinity). So choice? How choose?
SK - not in every society (past/present) so cultural/historical. E.g. less prohibited in the 50's?
PR - Boy learns not to cry =>proud of masculinity (constructs as male in control of emotions). Why? Positions girls as those who cry. Boys proud not to cry then tease girls for being weak
Effects gender relations: sets up boys as superior to girls re emotional control; girls = weaker sex - 83 common approaches1)Biological - set of basic emotions, pre-programmed into brain. More complex emotions emerge later via learning from social environment
2) All emotions learnt as we develop
3) Emotions don't exist as well defined & distinct psychological objects. Instead, appearance of structure is an artefact resulting from imposing particular cultural concepts onto what we experience - 9James' feedback theory (1884)Body reacts automatically to an event
Then emotions occur as a perception of event
Emotions sense in body
e.g. spot snake>heart beats faster & adrenalin pumps>fear emotion arises
*Issue* - How does perceiving something as emotional lead to specific changes in body? We have to know something is frightening *before* we can react to it as such! - 10Cannon's theory (1927)Quantitative measurement of bodily changes
Physiological changes occurred in emotional states
*but* contrasting emotions produce similar changes - imply fear & anger shouldn't feel different
Therefore: event leads to emotion which then activates a typical behaviour
e.g. spot snake>fear emotion arises>run away
Common pattern of activation of ANS associated with many different emotions - that are experienced in the brain NOT lower body - 11Schachter's theory (1959)Neither James or Cannon theories were social psych in nature
People make sense of emotion via comparison with others in similar circumstances
i.e. emotion from bodily perception. These can feel similar so we infer what we're feeling according to social situation & how others react
Emotion dependent on 2 factors:
Physiological = intensity of emotion
Cognition = quality of emotion
e.g. Spot snake>adrenalin released & heart beats faster>snake is interpreted as dangerous>fear emotion arises>run away
Idea of appraisal strength of theory - but physiological & cognitive responses act in parallel, not separately - so can't be independently manipulated
Theory highly influential - 12Schachter & Singer (1962)•'Suproxin' experiment
Adrenaline injected & placebo injected conditions - Ps told it was a vitamin supplement. Some informed of possible side-effects, others not
Euphoria & anger conditions induced by stooges
•Schachter's theory - emotion should only be experienced if physiological stimulation present *and* the individual believes it is caused by their situation
Also - emotional experiences should correspond to that of stooge
•Results - Ps experiencing unexplained arousal from adrenaline not report more emotion than placebo Ps
Some Ps happy in angry condition
•Criticisms - Deception; Giving drugs; Insults (later replications refused Anger condition - Marshall & Zimbardo)
(Power issue?)
•Self-report measure of how P felt, but how correspond to experienced emotion?
•Schachter ack anger under reported - re social acceptability? - 13Appraisal theory (social cognitive approach) ArnoldEmotion results from perception of external event & how we interpret it
Arnold ('60)
Emotional reaction based on whether event relevant to things we want (or don't)
i.e. perceiving things as relevant
Action tendency (not subjective feeling) @ heart of emotion
How we appraise situation affects whether we feel emotion & what emotion if we do
Arnold investigates from functional perspective - interested on impact on behaviour: how it changes how we position ourselves in relation to external factors
Allows for possibility we might be emotional w/o recognising it for ourselves
Instead of bodily changes (James) it's appraisals that determine whether something is emotional & *also* the difference between different emotions - 14Appraisal theory - Smith & Lazarus (1993)Appraisal linked to goals
If not linked then no emotion
If yes, then motivational congruence (i.e. help or hinder goals?)
Secondary appraisal determines which emotion re
how event to be explained - accountability
how it can be dealt with - coping potential - 15Appraisal theory - summaryAppraisal & emotion absolutely dependent on each other - not separable
Could be emotion understood in terms of implied appraisals - not emotions resulting from an appraisal itself
Theory:
1) Argues emotion results from perceiving & interpreting external events & not result of internal symptoms
2) Defines relational meanings for emotion terms like anger, guilt etc.
3) But it's not certain how such relational meanings consistently map onto any particular emotion - 16Emotion & Social IdentityEmotions affected by groups/organisations we belong to. High id with a group can lead to -ve or desensitised feelings when that group does something wrong
Doosje et al ('98) people feel guilty by association re identifying with certain groups (e.g. Germans/Nazis)
Smith ('93) group events become personally relevant & provoke emotional response. High level of id may lead to rejection of ambiguous evidence of group wrong-doing to protect personally valuable id - 17Emotional LabourAppraisals can be manipulated by experiments & employers - produce specified emotional effects
e.g. politeness in flight attendants even when passenger drunk! (Hochschild '83) - 18Basic EmotionsEkman ('72) neurocultural theory of emotion
Emotions adaptive responses re evolutionary challenges
Auto-appraisers - respond to adaptively import info & trigger pre-prog emotional response
Distinctive changes (per emotion):
- ANS
- Subjective feelings
- Facial expressions
Learn what's appropriate w/ in society - explains not all cues across societies result in same emotion
Display rules - societal rules re how expression of emotion should be ctrl - regulate bio triggered responses - 19Facial expressions of basic emotions Ekman studyEkman cross-cultural experimental studies re recognition of facial expressions
Borneo people id emotions of N. Americans
Suggest *universal* link between emotion & facial expression
*BUT* agreement <100% (except for smile/happy)
Why gap?
Why same for smile? - 20Facial expressions of basic emotions RussellRussell ('94)
If facial expressions diagnostic - why didn't non-Westerners perform better @ simple multi-choice task?
Ps may have worked out correct answer by piecing together other clues - e.g. fixed stare & down-turned mouth signal disapproval making anger best fit
Some aspects of expressions universal - *BUT* specific expressions not indicate particular emotions
Fridlund ('94) expression not for emotion but to convey a message to others - 21Nature of emotion categories Flaw in Ekman's researchPs linked photos to words describing emotion
Translation issues?
Not 1:1 correspondence between languages & cultures (both ways)
Apparent structure of emotions = perception NOT psych reality
Russell ('03) emotions culturally constructed - artefacts imposed on our experience, not reflection of reality
Therefore, not possible to distinguish (basic) emotions from how they're represented - 22Emotion discourse (1) RussellLimitation of experiments - use of self-reports. Answers given tell more about Ps interpretation that emotion itself
Russell ('03) self-report use concepts not perfectly defined. Self-report NOT objective representation of person's internal state - it's a communication to another person made for specific purpose
*NOT* dealt with by majority of researchers - 23Emotion Discourse (2) EdwardsEdwards - discursive approach
No assumptions re existence of emotions
Examines how *talk about our emotions* function in interactions w/ others
*conceptual resource used in conversations*
NOT a psych phenomena that requires classification
Talk is *flexible* enough to be used for variety of purposes
Emotion doesn't exist as separate psych entity but is always a construct specifically formulated for purpose
Doesn't stop consideration of cause-effect of non-linguistic phenomena (e.g. expressions) - more linked to what people think of as emotion - 24Emotion Discourse (3)Problem re claim emotional expression universal - experiments, non-Westerners don't do well matching faces to words
Facial expressions may evolved to transmit intention not emotion
Linguistic categories don't perfectly correlate w/ facial expressions - cultural meanings *imposed* on experience rather than reflections of psych reality
*categories of emotion lie in the eye of beholder*
Possible we may never be able to access emotions - only our representations of them
Talk can position people as innocent or guilty, rational or irrational
Categories are flexible & used for multiple purposes - 25Connie & Jimmy relationship counselling - Edwards, DPThey present alt versions of events to counsellor
DP agnostic re independent emotional reality - may/may not be inner life underlying emotions
Focus on how emotions *talked about* & *used* in discourse
'emotion words' used in people's accounts to explain events & actions, to argue & apportion blame - 26Edwards' review of Sun editorial of Earl Spencer's criticism of the press following Diana's death•Characterised Spencer as emotional not cognitive
•Characterised emotion as grief not anger
•If emotional then not rational so don't listen too much to him
•If grief then object of grief = sister
•If anger object would be press
•Shows basis of choice for emotional language used
•Cognitive - would have seen it as naive - i.e. the Sun just writing about Spencer's grief for no good reason
•Cognitive approaches to emotional language naive if not take into a/c uses of discourse - 27Rhetorical contrasts - Edwards, DP (1)•Oppositions of emotional expressions used in emotional discourse - to say & stress one thing instead of/alternative to another
•Shows range of things emotion discourse can do in talk/text - creating one meaning in contrast/exclusion to other possible meanings - 28Rhetorical contrasts - Edwards, DP (2)Depending on emotional concepts used - Jimmy's reaction can be seen as justified & reactive anger in a specific situation - denying dispositional jealousy (or vice versa)
**Shows contrast of emotions: event driven vs dispositional**
Jimmy can be described w/ emotional terms as 'enduringly jealous' vs being in 'angry state'
**Shows contrast of emotions: dispositions vs temporary states** - 29Rhetorical contrasts - Edwards, DP (3)Dependent on how emotions rhetorically positioned, emotion talk can create very different meanings regarding a person's responsibility vs irresponsibility; guilt vs non-guilt etc
- 30Historical changes in jealousyEarly - seen as natural (e.g. Bible); men 'allowed' to murder wives
20/30's - seen as psychological problem
60's - seen as vehicle for exploitation
Now - each construction exist alongside others providing repertoire of constructions - 31Cultural differences re jealousyInnuit 'putting out the lamp' ceremony & sex with guest
Different interpretations around the world from not asking for water from another wife to no issue with sex with guest
Culture provides framework within which individual 'makes sense' of their world and their emotions - 32Pre-linguistic emotionInfants can't speak - can be examined discursively:
1) exploring how caregivers explain behaviour in emotional terms
2) treating expressions & gestures as conversational moves
Reddy ('00) VT infants playing in front mirror
Monitored gaze withdrawal when infant began to smile in response to adult attention
Subjective - what is a smile and gaze withdrawal
Observers use own words
Keltner - developed criteria for detecting non-verbal emotion in adults - 33Emotion as relation alignmentDP shows emotion talk can be used to justify, undermine, draw attention to particular version of events
Russell - no simple object = emotion exists (no causal theory of emotions)
Social psych of emotions??
1) emotion in verbal/non-verbal terms (e.g. someone happy = smile)
Function of signal can be determined; symptoms of signal can be seen on others in terms of emotion
2) emotion discourse more developed form of non-verbal comms which precede it
Appraisal theory - we align relations w/ others in particular way due to how we appraised a situation
*BUT* Possible to use anger to achieve social effect - even if not appraised situation we can still display it if we want/need to
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- DD307 OU Social Psychology - Emotion
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- Ken Adams
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