training

training

1. there is research to show that skilled individuals perform work faster and more safely, make fewer errors, produce higher quality work, and that training can lead to improved job performance and other benefits like improved efficacy and lower stress among employees (Arthur et al., 2003

2. a planned n systematic effort to modify or develop knowledge, skill, attitude. its purpose, in work situation, is to enable the worker to perform adequately in given task (buckley, 2007).

3. Too little, too much or the wrong type of training can all cause problems. In fact, training that is misdirected or inappropriate for the specific needs of those involved can be worse than no training at all (Davies, 1972)

4. training cycle- Training needs analysis (TNA), training design (TD) and training evaluation (TE) constitute the three stages of the training cycle

5. TNA primary aim is to identify training objetives, which can occur on organizational, job/role/task and personal level. on org level- what are the companies needs, but if company wants to be more cost efficient, training might not be enough, senior managers havve to eb convinced the the cost will be worth the benefit of training, very raerly global reviews happen to identify jobn areas where trainign might be needed. One such method is Critical Incident Analysis. This involves initial interviews with members of the core management team to prioritise their aims and establish how and where training can help to achieve business objectives. Critical incident analysis also helps key stakeholders visualise how training can benefit their organisation, and to identify likely barriers and facilitators to implementing training successfully.

   • task analysis- uses hierarchical task analysis, hta, creates a hierarchy of goals and subgoals, less suited for constantly changing working conditions, novel cases whcih require to apply existing knowledge. use interviews, questionnaires to understand what KSA (knwoledge, skills, abiltiies) are most relevant tot the job, so where the trainign is needed.
   • person analysis- analysis of an individual and what kind of trsinign the person needs. Making managers responsible for identifying employee training needs is part of the broader philosophy of a learning organisation, where individual employees are encour- aged to engage in continual learning and development with support from their line man- ager. There are many advantages of this approach, including that it helps to ensure training remains central to dialogue about performance at work. That said, difficulties can arise if employees and managers disagree about the nature and importance of learning needs, or availability of appropriate training.
   • Salas et al. (2012) argue that training design is the single most important element of an effective training programme, because it involves asking questions about what methods will be used, how feedback will be provided to trainees, and how managers can support trainees when they return to the workplace. In practical terms, TD needs to: (i) set the training aims and objectives, (ii) determine an appropriate training strategy, and (iii) plan and implement the training.
     • Social learning the- ory (SLT), which was developed by Bandura (1986), addresses many of these criticisms by allowing a bigger role for internal mental processes (e.g. trainees’ expectancies about learning outcomes), and recognising the capacity of individuals to learn without direct experience (e.g. by observing someone else performing an activity). In terms of employee training, SLT emphasises the need for trainees to engage actively in the learning process and think about the training experience. One of the most important aspects of this theory is the emphasis it places on how experience of success helps the trainees develop belief in their ability to do the task.
       • SLT has had an important impact on the design of training. SLT-based training inter- ventions have three stages. First, trainee attention is focused by using a ‘model’ to perform the target behaviour (e.g. demonstrating how to engage a customer effectively). Second, the trainee observes a sequence of behaviours where the model is rewarded for performing appropriate behaviour (i.e. interacting with customers in a desired manner) or punished for inappropriate behaviour (i.e. responding to a customer in an undesirable way). Third, trainee learning is strengthened by providing opportunities to rehearse and practice. large body of research has doc- umented the effectiveness of SLT as a training method (e.g. Davis and Yi, 2004). models used for training should be helpful, friendly, high status, same race and gender as the trainess (Bandura, 1977)
         • Baldwin (1992) makes an interesting and important observation in relation to SLT and the use of modelling in training. He argues that trainers providing trainees with examples of how tasks should be performed, ignores the fact that trainees may already be proficient in performing a task – but in a different or less desirable way. Therefore in order to be motivated to learn, the chef will need to be persuaded as to why her effort is worthwhile. Although SLT is extremely useful in the design of training, it is unlikely to be use- ful for all training because not all tasks can be modelled (Gist, 1989). For example, an aspiring author is unlikely to learn very much by observing an experienced author
           • Social constructivist theories of learning have also been helpful for training design, because these theories argue that trainees should not be treated as passive learners, but as active learners who proactively engage in learning to co-produce knowledge when they interact with other people to discuss, analyse and experiment with this new information and the world around them. A distinction can be drawn between ‘surface learning’, which invovles memorizing, and deep learning- existing knowledge is applied to problems and modified for that specific case.
             • when accepting someone into the job, take note of the KSA- therefore, during the training, an emphasis is placed on all threee of these aspects .
               • Over 50 years ago, Fitts (1962) proposed a theory that is still highly regarded by psy- chologists and practitioners (Table 9.1). In essence he suggested that skill development progresses through three distinct phases: (i) a cognitive phase where the learner gains an intellectual understanding of the tasks involved; (ii) an associative phase where the learner begins to practise and receives feedback; and (iii) an autonomous phase where, through further practice, the learner can demonstrate a skilled performance that is resistant to interference
                 • e-learning- For example, in their meta-analysis of studies comparing the effectiveness of Web-based and classroom-based instruction, Sitzman et al. (2006) found that Web-based and classroom-based methods were equally effective for learning procedural knowledge, but Web-based formats were slightly better for trainees learning declarative knowledge. ‘Blended learning’, which involves the combined use of e-learning and traditional face-to-face formats, may overcome potential disadvantages associated with using one method of training in isolation. This may be because such an approach offers more confident, independent learners more opportunity for self-directed learning, while less confident learners benefit from face-to-face learning and increased opportunities for support and feedback (Klein et al., 2006)