A2 Geography-The Technological Fix

A2 Geography-The Technological Fix

1. Geography of technology

   • Geographical patterns & access
     • N v S divide on technology use- S America relatively high. Asia & Africa low percentage but Asian megacities (Mumbai & Shanghai) have high internet access levels.
     • Economics explains patterns.- Internet access costly in LDCs. Language-most webpages in English, Chinese or Spanish. Electricity & access to computer. Content needs to be what people want to use, Needs to be internet service providers.
     • Air travel- Some regions peripheral. Requires infrastructure(Airports), some global regions poorly integrated into global economy so little demand for travel. Lack of connections-new technology takes longer to reach places
   • Environmental determinism
     • more vunerable to environment due to lack of technology. Agricultural technology-crop production determined less by environment & farmers less vulnerable to hazards.-increases food security. Subsistence farming lacks this-need seed varieties, simple irrigation & fertilisers, not GM crops
       • Agricultural technology & vunerability
         • Irrigation-provide additional water for crops during dry periods/regions- without, dry regions produce fewer crops in shorter season, drought can lead to crop failure.
         • Pesticides-Sprayed on crops to kill pests & increase yields by decreasing crop losses- without, crops vulnerable to pest plagues
         • Fertilisers-Added to soil to provide additional nutrients for growth- without, yields restricted by natural nutrients
         • Farm machinery- Used to replace human labour & increase efficiency- without, size of farmed area determined by population & distance to travel, crops abandoned during floods/severe weather-lack of people
         • Hybridisation-Inter breeding of crop varieties under controlled conditions to produce disease/pest resistance & higher yields- without,Crops could become vulnerable to pests/disease
   • barriers & inequalities
     • Physical reasons-some renewable energy technologies are only suited to certain physical locations e.g solar/wind power. HEP-suitable water supply & valley.
     • Political reasons- N Korea-internet access prevented by government to control flow of information & ensure correct political message maintained
     • Environmental reasons-certain groups voluntarily shun certain technologies.Organic farmers-no pesticides/cattle antibiotics due to negative environmental & health impacts.
     • Religious reasons- contraceptive technology rejected by some religions-Catholic
     • Military reasons- nuclear technology controlled by international nuclear non-proliferation treaty-aims to prevent nuclear weapons falling into wrong hands. International Atomic Energy Agency-ensures states with nuclear power do not use it to develop nuclear weapons.
     • New inventions protected by intellectual property rights, patent given to the inventor to protect copying, inventors licence companies to manufacture new technology & receive royalties. Prevent drugs being made widely- charge high price to recoup R&D costs. Illegal copies in China/Brazil for HIV/AIDS.
   • medicines, crop breeding to increase yield-agricultural technology, petroleum & nuclear technology. Access to technology not evenly distributed.(electricity,sanitation, Internet access)

2. Technology & development

   • the technology gap
     • developed world increasingly knowledge based-monay made from ideas,information & services.- growth of knowledge economy promoted by globalisation of free markets/free trade, information/communications technology, networking using internet technology, high-tech products & services.
       • developing world still industrial- Iphone- complex components made in NICs/Japan, less complex assembly-China. No role for least developed-Africa
     • R & D spending- globally $1 trillion- USA-1/3-most research personnel. technological innovations-2007-51% patents in USA, 20% Japan, 16% EU. MDC governments & TNCs invest in R&D, high university funding-graduates
   • leapfrogging
     • R&D hard for developing world- skilled researchers required, need investment in universities, most R&D by TNCs in MDCs, government budgets used for water/housing projects- little spare money, lab/research facilities expensive. NICs(Taiwan/S Korea-Samsung) big R&D spenders
     • Examples- Mobile phones without landlines, Laptops & wifi without broadband & computers, Solar panels/HEP without complex electricity transmission grid, GM crops.
       • Mobile phones-leapfrogged landlines- requires installation of masts-limited signal coverage, electricity to charge-villages have car chargers. Increases ability to search for jobs, keep in touch with family, access market prices, warn of natural hazards.
       • Lifestraw-Water purification- leapfrogged water purification & distribution network, 30cm tube, purifies water using filters-portable & lasts 1yr. Major health improvements- kills all bacteria & parasites.
     • Problems- developed world origins- MDCs collect royalties & profits
   • costs & benefits
     • externalities-unforseen impacts of technology-not accounted for in final costs of production.- unforeseen environmental impacts leading to social polarisation
       • Green revolution- increased food supply in Asia, had to be redeveloped every few years as effected by pests & disease.
         • Aim-High yielding crop varieties(HYVs) & fertilisers, irrigation & machinery. double wheat/rice yields. increasing food security.
           • Impacts- Economic-Yields dramatically increase, 2 crop harvests per year, increased food security, Social- Machinery introduction-unemployment & increased urban migration, only well off farmers can afford, improved health & diet. Environmental- Increased fertiliser use-nutrient rich runoff & eutrophication, pesticide over-spray damages biodiversity, some HYV monocultures wiped out by pests/disease.
       • gene revolution- much of production exported as fibre(cotton)/Cattle fees(maize/soy), food security often not increased.
         • Aim- Genetic makeup of crops(maize,cotton,soy) altered so they are pest,disease,herbicide,drought resistant. yields & food/income security increase
           • Impacts- Economic-Farmers more dependent on seeds/chemicals from TNCs, Some yields not increased, Increased exports/rising farm incomes. Social- Public reject technology(UK), Argentina-larger GM maize farmers buy out smaller ones-social polarisation, many crops for export not food. Environmental- Weeds develop resistance to herbicides, deforestation in latin America to increase farmed areas.
   • dealing with externalities
     • more technology-greater environmental impact- goods require resources-have to be extracted & processed. Manufacturing causes pollution, technology has to be powered by fossil fuels- higher co2 emissions/global warming
       • impacts on humans/ecosystem wellbeing- rising sea levels-flood costal cities, increased sea temperatures-cause coral bleaching, increased drought-crop failure & water shortages, increased flooding-destroy homes.
         • increasing pressure to move to polluter pays model- if people treat environment as pollution sink,have to pay green taxation- EU emissions trading scheme sets pollution quotas- can buy carbon credits, UK car tax linked to co2 produced per km.

3. Technology, environment & the future

   • contrasting approaches
     • Intermediate technology needs to be fit for purpose-low cost & easy to repair locally- environmentally friendly. Bottom up.
       • Alternative technology-lowest environmental impact/pollution e.g solar powered water pump-NGO/TNC joint venture.
     • Intermediate technology- low cost, simple, small scale, local skills & resources e.g Village hand pump installed by NGO.
     • Mega-engineering projects-one-off solution at high capital cost e.g Large dam funded by government
     • high tech advanced technology e.g bioengineering/electronics, nanofiltrification systems from TNC R&D labs
   • Big fix
     • Geo-engineering- regional/global scale technology that re-engineers the way the planet works (global warming/land degradation) often transboundary-conflict
       • proponents-techno-fixes more likely to work than persuasion to change lifestyles(attitudinal) precautionary principe-arguing against technology as unknown outcomes.
         • Past failure- Aral Sea disaster
           • Aim-Transform arid USSR land into productive cotton-growing farmland using mega-scale irrigation
             • Technology-Dams & diversions of rivers to redirect flow along 40,000km of canals to irrigate 3.5m hectares of land
               • Impacts/problems- Rivers dry up, Aral sea shrinks to 25% of original size, exposed sea bed scoured by wind creating salt storms & farm chemicals on people & land, chemical pollution increases cancer, fishing industry collapse, flora & fauna in sea died out.
         • Future possibility-Artificial global dimming
           • Aim-Reduce solar input by creating an artificial aerosol blanket in the atmosphere to reflect sunlight back into space
             • Technology-aircraft/rockets/artillery/balloons -shoot sulfur dioxide aerosols into stratosphere to decrease concentrations
               • Impacts/problems- Aerosols cool planet by reflecting incoming solar radiation & promoting cloud formation, calculating amount of sulfur dioxide required difficult & could increase acid rain, unforeseen climate alterations
   • Technology & sustainability
     • Need to maintain high human wellbeing and ecosystem- environmental sustainability index(ESI)- high human wellbeing(GDP), QoL index.
     • Sustainability of technology
       • Economic- technology must be cost effective & affordable- no debt, costs not passed to others.
       • Social- Benefit all parts of society & not polarise it, promote human health & wellbeing
       • Environmental-produce little pollution, not have adverse consequences for ecosystems
       • Resources-use renewable resources, power should avoid fossil fuel use
   • futures
     • Several possible futures-
       • Divergent world-technological advances in developed world, lack of access in developing world. widen development gap- rely on aid
       • Convergent world- increased transfer of technology to developing world. bridge development gap. current patenting & licensing does not allow. Intensify global warming
       • Switch to renewable resources for making & powering technology. Fossil fuels-environmental issues, economic uncertainty(running out)
         • LDCs- technology transfer relies on NGO development work (UK government).
           • 2008-Global Environment Facility(GEF) given responsibility for technology transfer to developing world-energy efficient lighting & appliances, efficient & renewable power generation, fuel-cell buses -$3Billion annual budget- support of 180 countries- trying to prevent use of fossil fuels-stop global warming-needed for development & environmental sustainability

4. Synoptic links

   • Players- technology developed by TNCs- research innovations-GM crops, new drugs & IT applications. Technology rapidly adopted in developing world-NGOs responsible for introducing appropriate & intermediate technology
   • Actions- High tech/big fixed favoured by governments-visible solutions to national problems(three-gorges dam) Intermediate. appropriate technology-local & favoured by grass roots.sustainable development
   • Futures- Business as usual- developed world adopting new technology, developing have limited access. More sustainable-Wholesale technology transfer to developing-Improve QoL. Enhanced by radical adoption of renewable technology to replace energy intensive,polluting technologies in transport & energy supply e.g geo-engineering solutions
   • Links to other units-Unit 1-World at risk- technology may play role in managing global warming e.g costal defences, geo-engineering tech fixes. Unit 3- Water conflicts- dams,water transfer schemes,desalination. Energy security-renewable energy technology. Bridging the development gap-high tech top-down & intermediate technology bottom-up approach. Superpowers- rich & powerful develop most new technology- investment in R&D-control access-patents, royalties,licence fees. Hazard management-monitoring,prediction,relief,reconstruction.
   • links to wider global issues- global environment crisis- global warming,loss of biodiversity, water supply degradation, soil erosion. Appropriate technology-affordable & manageable. Development gap needs to be bridged-improved communications,energy supplies,drugs & farm technology- improved food security,decreased poverty & reduced vulnerability.