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Ancient History Summary - Ch 1 - 6 of Antiquity Textbook
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- 1define archaeologythe excavation and study of the physical remains of the past
- 2how old is archaeology?less than 300 years old
- 3what is the Greek translation of the word archaeology?the discussion of ancient things
- 4describe the development of archaeologyfrom treasure hunting (careless, rushed and unstructured digs) to systematic excavation methods (collecting information and carefully preserving sites)
- 5what has archaeology recently become concerned with?the need for conservation - to protect sites from both natural and human destruction
- 6How did modern warfare contribute to archaeological techniques?the use of aerial photography in WW1, and the construction of airfields and the bombing of sites in WW2 opened up new possibilities for archaeology and exposed many potential archaeological sites.
- 7describe the Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) as an archaeological technique- geophysical technique
- radar pulses are used to produce images of the subsurface. The longer it takes for the electromagnetic pulses (radar signals) to reflect off of buried objects and changes in soil composition, the deeper the GPR can survey - 8describe the LiDAR (light detection and ranging) as an archaeological technique- aerial technique
- mapping that is an optical remote sensing technology that uses laser light to map the ground surface and objects present on or just below the surface of the Earth. - 9what is the difference between an aerial survey and a ground/geophysical survey?aerial = the use of aircraft or satellites to create images of the land to be interpreted for archaeological information
ground/geophysical = ground-based physical sensing techniques used in archaeology for imaging or mapping - 10define hypothesisa proposed explanation based on limited evidence that is used as a starting point for further investigation
- 11what is the difference between a research dig and a salvage dig:salvage: limited time frame - remove as many artefacts as possible (usually occurs when discovered by construction in urban areas) eg. Athens Olympic games
research: slower dig, focused on conservation and preservation - 12define findspotthe place where an artefact is found in a dig
- 13describe the grid system- allows archaeologists to study the vertical dimension of the site by revealing the time sequence in the layers exposed
- divide site into squares/boxes
- excavate square by square
- coordinates of grid are used to record the locations of finds on a map or plan of the site
-This allows patterns of artefact distribution to appear - 14define baulka strip or wall of earth left between trenches to enable the study of the complete stratigraphy of a site
- 15define stratum (pl. strata)layers in an archaeological site revealed by excavation
- 16define provenancethe origins and published ownership history of an archaeological artefact
- 17describe open area excavation- Focuses on the horizontal dimensions of a site by uncovering the whole site layer by layer
- The emphasis is on understanding the relationships between the things found in each layer of the stratum
- Each succeeding stratum is not exposed until the one above is has been completely examined and recorded - 18define 'in situ'in the original position
- 19discuss/name excavation tools- heavy earth machinery is used to clear the surface or remove topsoil
- major excavation work carried out using picks, shovels and trowles
- paintbrushes, toothbrushes and dental picks expose remains without moving them or causing damage - 20what principle is archaeological dating based on?- stratigraphy: anything discovered is considered in relation to the strata above and below.
- 21describe stratigraphic dating- relies on the relationship between the successive strata or layers of a dig, with the oldest material being in
the lowest strata and the newest material being in the top strata - 22describe typology dating- principle of organising finds in a chronological sequence - eg. artefacts belonging to a distinctive time period have specific features (red-slip pottery from pompeii)
- As a general rule, the earliest artefacts in the sequence tend to be simpler, while the latest samples will be more sophisticated.
eg. large grey box on tesk, laptop, tablet, smartphone - 23describe Thomsen's 3-age system- He established a three-part organisation of ancient artefacts based on the technology of stone, bronze and iron. Widespread excavation confirmed that stone artefacts pre-date bronze artefacts, and iron artefacts came after bronze ones.
- Despite scientific advancements in the dating of artefacts, this basic ordering of finds is still the most common method of dating used by archaeologists. - 24what is absolute dating?- where scienfitic dating using labratory analysis can often provide more abccurate dates
- 25discuss radio-carbon dating- also known as carbon-14 dating, dates organic material between 50 000 and 400 years old.
- Scientists can measure the radioactive emissions of the carbon in a sample of the organism to determine when the organism died. In this way, they can estimate its age. - Many different types of organic materials can be radiocarbon dated - eg. bone, hair, leather, blood residues, paper and parchment, charcoal, wood, soil and coprolites (preserved faeces). - 26discuss AMS radio-carbon dating- stands for accelerator mass spectrometry. - an improvement on traditional radiocarbon dating because it can date material back to about 70 000 years, is more accurate, requires much smaller samples for testing (e.g. a human hair) and produces results in a shorter time.
- Contamination of samples, which can produce inaccurate results, is reduced by this method. - 27discuss dendrochronology (tree ring dating)- Trees develop a ring for each year of growth. Dendrochronologists measure these rings or a cross-section of a timber artefact to determine the age of the timber.
- Older trees of the same species growing in the same region will show a similar pattern of growth rings - 28discuss potassium-argon dating- Geologists use this method to date volcanic rock up to millions of years old.
- It is one of the most useful methods for dating human evolution, especially at sites such as Olduvai Gorge in eastern Africa, an area of high volcanic activity, where the remains of our earliest human ancestors have been found as fossils embedded in geological strata. - 29discuss TL (thermoluminescence) dating- another form of radioactive dating; however, it can date pottery and inorganic material that is more than 50 000 years old.
- can be used on fakes to establish thier authenticity or otherwise
- determines the original firing date of the pottery - 30discuss tephrochronology dating- uses layers of volcanic ash (tephra) deposits to create a chronological sequence, which can be used to date archaeological material from the deposits.
- the ash produced from each volcanic eruption has a unique chemical fingerprint that can be readily identified across a large fallout area. This acts as an indicator of the date of the eruption. - 31discuss uranium thorium dating- dates calcite layers in caves that are on top of prehistoric rock paintings, for example the cave paintings at Altamira in Spain.
- 32list recent methods of scientific dating• electron spin resonance (ESR)
• archaeomagnetic dating
• fission-track dating
• amino acid racemisation
• fluorine-uranium-nitrogen dating. - 33what is fission-track dating- a technique for establishing the age of a mineral sample from its uranium content.
- It involves microscopically counting tracks produced by uranium fission fragments and then establishing the existing concentration of uranium by counting again after irradiating the sample with neutrons.
- a radiometric dating technique based on analysis of damage trails, or tracks, left by fission fragments in certain uranium-bearing minerals and glasses. - 34discuss marine archaeology- the use of scuba equipment to employ the same principals used on land
eg. used for ship wreaks - 35what is a source?anything that has survived the past - written or archaeological
- 36what are examples of archaeological sources used to reconstruct the past?- Artefacts: tools, weapons, jewellery, statues, household utensils, coins, tomb paintings, reliefs and iconography
- Built Structures: temples, houses and palaces, bridges, aqueducts, tombs, obelisks, pyramids, stelae
- Organic Remains: human and animal remains, plant remains (eg.pollen, seeds. textiles) - 37what are examples of written sources used to reconstruct the past?- Literary Texts: plays, chronicles, poems, speeches, histories, biographies
- Official Documents: contracts, annals, decrees, inscriptions, papyri, law codes, list of transaction, records
- Private documents: letters, diaries, graffiti, religious texts - 38a source is not equal to ...evidence
- 39define a secondary sourcea source that has been created after the time being studied
- 40define a primary sourcea source that comes from the time being studied
- 41discuss characteristics of archaeological sources- Archaeological sources provide evidence of everyday life that is not usually available
from written sources.
- Grand structures such as pyramids, palaces and temples
- Household activities
- Ancient customs
- Religious beliefs
- Warfare
- Other aspects of daily life in ancient times - 42discuss characteristics of written sources- Written sources can contribute a great deal to an understanding of the ancient past. They contain firsthand accounts, opinions and details not usually available in archaeological sources.
- official documents
- accounts of warfare
- contracts
- historical records
- literary works - 43checklist for interrogating archaeological sources (1 - 6)1. what is it
2. what was its context
3. can it be accurately dated
4. how does its condition affect its interpretation
5. is it valuable in providing evidence about the past
6. what evidence does this source provide about the past - 44checklist for interrogating written sources (1 - 6)1. what type of text is it
2. what is the context of the writer? What is their perspective
3. what is the writers purpose
4. who is the intended audience
5. is it trustworthy
6. is it valuable in providing evidence about the period - 45what is bias?occurs when a writer offers opinions or judgements that reflect their particular attitudes or prejudices in relation to aspects such as gender, race, culture or politics.
- 46what are the 3 main categories of bias?1. gender bias
2. racial and cultural
3. political - 47what is authentiction?identifying a fake by observation of stylistic features, using the knowledge and skills that has developed over a long period of time. Proof comes to rely on scientific testing methods, which can give an objective assessment of authenticity.
- 48what is cross referencing?by checking one source for accuracy against an older version of the same text. One example is the impact made on assessments of the accuracy of Hebrew Old Testament scriptures by the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls.
- 49define reliabilitythe accuracy of a source judged on its context, purpose, origin and intended audience
- 50what are some negatives of authentication?- difficult
- costly
- museums and collects sometimes dont accept it because it can destory /damage artefacts during testing - 51what is a relican authentic, original artefact that has survived in whole or in part form ancient times
- 52what is a fake?an object that has been altered deliberately to decieve others into believing that it is original and therefore valuable
- 53what is a replica?the reproduction of an original artefact that has been made for open and honest purposes
- 54what is a forgery?an entirely new work made to imitate an original
- 55what is the role of provenance?- plays an important role in the authentication of artefacts
- the documented history or record of ownership can be faked - 56what is usefulness?a judgement about the value of sources for researching particular people, events and developments of the past
- 57how do you authenticate written texts?asses the accuracy and usefulness of what is written by considering purpose, and social, political and historical contexts
- 58discuss the three main methods of authentication1. visual examination eg. naked eye
2. material analysis eg. pigment analysis
3. determination of age eg. radiocarbon dating - 59science v expert opinionscientific data = can extend the range of information we already know
- expert opinion eg. art historian
- most effective when combined - 60why make fakes?- to make a large amount of money by deceiving unwary collectors
- to protect valuable and sometimes fragile originals
- cover up theft of the originals - 61define perspectivesthe points of view held by individuals or groups about the past that are based on their contexts and motivations
- 62what is conservation?Conservation is the deliberate attempt to arrest the process of change and decay, and to protect and preserve sites and artefacts from the damaging effects of both natural and human agency.
- 63what is reconstruction?Reconstruction involves rebuilding or restoring a site to its original state, or the state it was
in at the period of its history chosen for that particular representation. - 64what is preservation?- to keep alive or in existence; make lasting
- to keep safe from harm or injury; protect or spare. - 65what are factors contributing to the preservation of the pastnatural agency = effects of climatic and other environmental factors eg. peat
human agency = the result of actions such as burial of the dead, or the hiding or hoarding of values belongings - 66what are factors threatening the integrity of ancient sites?- the natural proccesses of decay
- actions of people such as warfare, invasion and settlement, terrorism, civil unrest, looting, mining and tourism
- natural disasters (tsunami, earthquake) - 67what is the role of UNESCO in conserving archaeological sites?- draw up inventories of monuments, artworks, scientific collections, books and other artefacts of historical or archaeological value
- make plans for safe storage and supervision of cultural property - 68list conservation technologies- satelite imagery
- x-ray radiography
- computerised image analysis
- x-ray computer tomography
- neutron radiography
- infrared photography - 69describe a case study of reconstruction of archaeological sites:The reconstruction of Knossos
- 70discuss modern methods of reconstructionanastylosis: the reconsturction of ruined ancient structures using - as far as possible - the original materials
eg. Athenian Acropolis - 71an example of rescue archaeologyAbu Simbel
- 72what are examples of digital reconstuction- digital image processing
- terrestrial laser scanning
- 3D-model processing
eg. reconstructed arch of Triumph - 73what is cultural heritage?refers to all those things, both material and non-material, that are valued and passed down through the generations by individuals and cultural groups
tangible eg. buildings, monuments
intangiable eg. language - 74discuss cultural property- objects that are part of the cultural heritage of a group or society
eg. archaeological sites, historical buildings, landscapes and works of art
--> Sydney Opera House
--> Parthenon Marbles - 75looting and illegal trade - negative implications- destroys sites
- destroys provenance - 76discuss the role and contribution of museums- collect artefacts and materials of cultural and historical importance
responsible for the cost of their upkeep and preservation
- tell the story of how humanity has changed and developed throughout time
offers a particular interpretation of the past - 77what are bog bodies?bodies preserved in bog or peat (partially decayed vegetation or organic matter)
-typically found in northern europe
- first bog body found was in the netherlands in the 18th century - 78where are bog bodies foundtypically northern europe - the UK, Ireland, the Netherlands, Denmark, Germany
- 79how are bog bodies preservedpeat = little or no oxygen in the water for chemical processes of decay to occur
- 80discuss a scientific analysis of bog bodies- forensic techniques such as strontium isotope tracing technology (human hair and skin) indicating where some of the bog bodies lived in the last few years of their lives
- 81how has the nature of archeological excavation changed over timefrom digging up treasures (treasure hunting) to conservation, research, analysis of finds, protection of artefacts
- 82how do archaeological and scientific techniques contribute to the discovery and investigation of the ancient past?- work together to uncover archaeological sites, research and analyse finds, and thus make educated interpretations of the ancient past - for example - weaponry found through open area excavation can be analysed and placed in chronological order, showing the development of tools throughout history
- 83what are the strengths and limitations of archaeological sources for reconstructing the ancient past?- information gained through the interrogation of sources is evidence that can be used to reconstruct the ancient past
- could be biased - not telling the whole truth or from a subjective point of view based on gender, racial, cultural and political bias
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- A comprehensive summary of the content in Chapters 1 through to 6 of the Antiquity 1 Ancient History textbook.
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- Lauren Spence
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