3707688
| Question | Answer |
| social psychology | study of the causes and consequences of sociality |
| social behavior | how people interact with each other |
| social influence | how people change with each other |
| ultrasocial | forms societies in which large numbers of individuals divide labor and cooperate for mutual benefit |
| aggression | behavior with the purpose of harming another |
| frustration-aggression hypothesis | animals aggress when their desires are frustrated |
| cooperation | behavior by two or more individuals that leads to mutual benefit |
| group | collection of people who have something in common that distinguishes them from others |
| prejudice | positive or negative evaluation of another person based on their group membership |
| discrimination | positive or negative behavior towards another based on their group membership |
| common knowledge effect | tendency for group discussions to focus on information all members share |
| group polarization | tendency for groups to make decisions more extreme than any member would have made alone |
| groupthink | tendency for groups to reach consensus to facilitate harmony |
| deindividuation | immersion in a group causes a member to become less aware of individual values |
| diffusion of responsibility | tendency for individuals to feel diminished responsibility for actions when surrounded by others acting the same way |
| social loafing | tendency for people to expend less effort when in a group than when alone |
| bystander intervention | the act of helping strangers in an emergency situation |
| altruism | behavior that benefits another without benefiting oneself |
| kin selection | process where evolution selects individuals who cooperate with relatives |
| mere exposure effect | tendency for liking to increase with the frequency of exposure |
| passionate love | experience with euphoria, intimacy, and intense sexual attraction |
| companionate love | experience involving affection, trust, and concern for partner's well-being |
| social exchange | hypothesis that people remain in relationships only as long as they perceive a favorable ratio of costs to benefits |
| comparison level | cost-benefit ratio that people believe they deserve/could attain in another relationship |
| equity | state of affairs in which the cost-benefit ratios of two partners are roughly equal |
| homophily | we are more attracted to people like us |
| reciprocity | we tend to like people who like us (and don't like anyone else) |
| gene | major unit of heredity transmission |
| chromosomes | strands of DNA would around each other in a double helix |
| epigenetics | environmental influences on gene expression |
| dualism | mind and brain are independent but somehow interactive |
| materialism | the mind is what the brain does |
| globalized function | graceful degradation; as you remove parts you get worse at doing something, but don't loose specific functions (IE: sponge) |
| localized function | catastrophic breakdown; you take a small part away and you lose specific functions (IE: brain) |
| sensation | simple stimulation of a sense organ |
| perception | organization, identification, and interpretation of a sensation in order to form a mental representation |
| transduction | when many sensors in body convert physical signals from the environment into encoded neural signals sent to the central nervous system |
| psychophysics | methods that measure the strength of a stimulus and the observer's sensitivity to that stimulus |
| just noticeable difference (JND) | minimal change in a stimulus that can just barely be detected |
| Weber's law | the JND of a stimulus is in constant proportions despite variations in intensity |
| signal detection theory | the response to a stimulus depends both on a person's sensitivity to the stimulus in the presence of noise and on a person's decision criteria (willingness to make a mistake) |
| selective attention | perceiving only what's currently relevant to you |
| sensory adaptation | sensitivity to prolonged stimulation tends to decline over time as an organism adapts to current conditions |
| visual acuity | the ability to see fine detail |
| accommodation | the process by which the eye maintains a clear image on the retina |
| blind spot | location in visual field that produces no sensation on the retina |
| binding problem | how features are lined together so that we see unified objects in our visual world rather than free floating or miscombined features |
| illusory conjunction | a perceptual mistake where features from multiple objects are incorrectly combined |
| feature integration theory | focused attention is not required to detect the individual features that comprise a stimulus, such as color/shape/size/location of letters, but it is required to bind those features together |
| perceptual constancy | even as aspects of sensory signals change, perception remains consistent |
| template | mental representation that can be directly compared to a viewed shape in the retinal image |
| molecular depth cues | aspects of a scene that yield information about depth when viewed with only one eye (linear perspective, texture gradient, interposition, and relative height) |
| binocular depth cues | difference on retinal images of both eyes that provides info about depth |
| apparent motion | perception of movement as a result of rapidly changing signals in different locations |
| change blindness | when people fail to detect details of a scene |
| inattentional blindness | failure to perceive objects that are not the focus of attention |
| haptic perception | active exploration of environment by touching and grasping objects with our hands |
| referred pain | feeling of pain when sensory info from internal and external areas converges on the same nerve cells in the spinal cord |
| gate-control theory of pain | signals arriving from pain receptors in the body can be stopped by interneurons in the spinal cord, feedback from two directions |
| pheromones | biochemical odorants emitted by members of a species that can effect an animal's behavior or physiology |
| massive parallelism | at once, different subsystems in the brain are processing different aspects, these subsystems are then brought together for sight |
| saccade | jump of the eye |
| sacadic suppression | when eyes jump, vision gets turned off |
| memory | the ability to store and retrieve info over time |
| encoding | transforming what we perceive |
| storage | maintaining info over time |
| retrieval | recalling information |
| semantic encoding | relating information in a meaningful way to knowledge that is already stored in memory |
| visual imagery encoding | storing new information by converting it into mental pictures |
| organizational encoding | process of categorizing information according to relationships among items |
| sensory memory | type of storage that holds sensory information for a few seconds or less |
| iconic memory | fast decaying store of visual information (one second) |
| echoic memory | fast decaying store of auditory information (five seconds) |
| short term memory | holds nonsensory information for longer than a few seconds but shorter than a minute |
| rehearsal | keeping information in short term memory by mentally repeating it |
| chunking | combining small information into larger chunks to keep it in short term memory |
| working memory | active maintenance of information in short term storage |
| long term memory | holds information for up to years |
| anterograde amnesia | inability to transfer new information from short term to long term storage |
| consolidation | process where memories become stable in the brain |
| retrograde amnesia | inability to retrieve information that was acquired before a particular date |
| reconsolidation | memories are vulnerable when recollected, requiring reconsolidation |
| long term potentation | process where communication across synapses strengthens neuron's connection, making communication easier |
| retrieval cue | external information that is associated with stored information and helps bring it to mind |
| encoding specificity principle | retrieval cue can serve as an effective reminder when it helps recreate specific way information was initially encoded |
| state dependent retrieval | tendency for information to be better remembered when one is in the same state during encoding and retrieval |
| transfer-appropriate processing | memory is likely to transfer between situations when encoding and retrieval contexts match |
| retrieval-induced forgetting | retrieving an item from long term memory impairs subsequent recall of related items |
| explicit memory | people consciously retrieve past experiences |
| implicit memory | past experiences influence people, even without awareness of recollection or attempted retrieval |
| procedural memory | gradual acquisition of skills as a result of practice |
| semantic memory | network of related facts and concepts that make our knowledge of the world |
| episodic memory | collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place |
| collaborative inhibition | the same number of individuals working together recall fewer items than each would on their own, total |
| transience | forgetting what occurs with the passage of time |
| retroactive interference | later learning impairs earlier memory |
| proactive interference | earlier learning impairs memory for information learned later |
| absentmindedness | a lapse in attention results in memory failure |
| prospective memory | remembering to do something in the future |
| blocking | failure to retrieve information that is available in memory even though you are trying to produce it (tip of tongue) |
| memory misattribution | assigning a recollection or an idea to the wrong source |
| source memory | recall of when, where, and how information was acquired |
| false recognition | a feeling of familiarity about something that hasn't been encountered before |
| suggestibility | tendency to incorporate misleading information from external sources into personal recollections |
| bias | distorting influences of present knowledge, beliefs, and feelings, on recollection for previous experiences |
| consistency bias | reconstruct past to fit the present |
| change bias | exaggerate difference between what we feel now vs. what we felt in the past |
| egocentric bias | tendency to exaggerate change to make us look good in retrospect |
| persistence | intrusive recollection of events we wish we could forget |
| flashbulb memories | detailed recollections of when and where we learned of shocking events |
| learning | acquisition of new knowledge, skills, or responses that results in a relatively permanent change in the state of the learner |
| habituation | repeated/prolonged exposure to a stimulus results in a gradual reduction in responding |
| sensitization | presentation of a stimulus leads to an increased response to a later stimulus |
| classical conditioning | a neutral stimulus (CS) produces a response (CR) after being paired with a stimulus (UCS) that naturally produces a response (UCR) |
| acquisition | phase of classical conditioning when the CS and US are presented together |
| second-order conditioning | conditioning where a CS is paired with a stimulus that was paired with the US earlier |
| extinction | the gradual elimination of a learned response that occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US |
| spontaneous recovery | tendency of a learned behavior to recover from extinction after a rest period |
| generalization | CR is observed even when the CS is slightly different from the CS used during acquisition |
| discrimination | capacity to distinguish between similar but distinct stimuli |
| biological preparedness | propensity for learning particular kinds of associations over others |
| operant conditioning | type of learning in which the consequences of an organism's behavior determine whether it will be repeated in the future |
| law of effect | behaviors that are followed by a "satisfying state of affairs" tend to be repeated and the opposite are less likely to be repeated |
| operant behavior | behavior that an organism produces that has some impact on the environment |
| reinforcer | stimulus leading to an increase in behavior that led to it |
| punisher | stimulus leading to a decrease in the behavior that led to it |
| fixed interval | reinforcers are presented at a fix-time period (with appropriate responses) |
| variable interval | reinforced based on time since last reinforcement |
| fixed ratio | reinforced after certain number of responses |
| variable ratio | reinforced based on particular average number of responses |
| intermittent reinforcement effect | operant behaviors under this schedule resist extinction better than those under continuous reinforcement |
| shaping | learning that results from the reinforcement of successive steps to a final desired behavior |
| latent learning | something is learned but not manifest as a behavior until some time in the future |
| cognitive map | mental representation of the physical features of the environment |
| observational learning | learning takes place by watching the actions of others |
| diffusion chain | individuals learn a behavior by watching another and then serve as a model to others |
| implicit learning | learning that takes place largely independent of awareness of process and products of acquisition |
| emotion | a positive or negative experience that is associated with a particular pattern of physiological activity |
| James-Lange theory | stimulus triggers activity in the body which in turn produces an emotional experience in the brain |
| Cannon-Bard theory | stimulus simultaneously triggers activity in the body and emotional experience in the brain |
| two-factor theory | emotions are based on inferences about the causes of physiological arousal |
| appraisal | evaluation of the emotion-relevant aspects of the stimulus |
| emotion regulation | strategies people use to influence their own emotional experience |
| reappraisal | changing one's emotional experience by changing the way one thinks about the emotion eliciting stimulus |
| motivation | the purpose for or psychological cause of an action |
| hedonic principle | the claim that people are motivated to experience pleasure and avoid pain |
| homeostasis | tendency for a system to take action to keep itself in a particular state |
| drive | internal state caused by physiological needs |
| metabolism | the rate at which energy is used by the body |
| human sexual response cycle | stages of physiological arousal during sex (excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution, refractory period) |
| need for achievement | motivation to solve worthwhile problems |
| approach motivation | to experience a positive outcome |
| avoidance motivation | to not experience a negative outcome |
| affective forecasting | ability to predict responses to an event you've never experienced |
| impact bias | tendency to look to future and predict you have strong, pervasive emotions |
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