GoConqr has a new look! Let us know what you think.

Sign up free

Flashcards

ALR A2 Chapter 3 - Part 1

Joshua Emerson Pilande EL 104 | Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and Learning 1 English 200 cards

Cards in this deck (200)

  1. 1Chapter 3Age and Acquisition
  2. 2“Oh, Doug will be just fine,” reasoned my father, on the prospects of enrolling me in the nearby ______________ school in Leopoldville, Belgian Congo.French-speaking
  3. 3“He’s [Doug] five now and a new _________ is no problem for kids. He’ll be ________ in French in no time.”language, fluent
  4. 4And off I went, a frightened little boy, into what was for me a _________, scary environment in my first schooling experience, in the middle of a kindergarten year that I never had a chance to start earlier—in any language.hostile
  5. 5The emotional scars remain to this day: memories of a monster of a teacher and bratty classmates, mocking the American kid who could hardly ______ or _______ a word of French.speak, understand
  6. 6And I graduated second in my class! Yes, the ____________ in those days actually ranked children—even first graders—by their test scores!Belgian system
  7. 7Does _____ matter for the ultimate attainment of second language _______ (SLA)?age, acquisition
  8. 8This is a question we’re still sorting out, and we will look at the ______ and _________ in this chapter.issues, related research
  9. 9What we do know is that we have all observed children acquiring their first language (L1) easily and well, yet adults learning a second language (L2), particularly in an __________, can meet with great difficulty and sometimes failure.educational setting
  10. 10What we do know is that we have all observed children acquiring their ________________ easily and well, yet adults learning a __________, particularly in an educational setting, can meet with great difficulty and sometimes _______.first language (L1), second language (L2), failure
  11. 11We also know that a _____________ of L1 learning experiences has yielded important insights into L2 learning.systematic study
  12. 12What may not be quite as obvious, though, is how the L2 teacher should interpret the many ________ and sometimes ______________ of L1 research.facets, contradictory findings
  13. 13L1 acquisition starts in ________________, but SLA can happen in childhood, early or late, as well as in ___________.very early childhood, adulthood
  14. 14Do childhood and adulthood, and differences between them, hold some keys to __________ and _________? The purpose of this chapter is to address some of those questions and to set forth explicitly some of the parameters for looking at the effects of ______ and _________.SLA models, theories, age, acquisition
  15. 15Let’s begin by dispelling some myths about the relationship between L1 and L2 acquisition. Consider some of the ____________ that are sometimes given for assuming that L1 and L2 learning are similar processes ( Stern, 1970 , pp. 57 – 58 ):flawed arguments
  16. 16Let’s begin by dispelling some myths about the relationship between L1 and L2 acquisition. Consider some of the flawed arguments that are sometimes given for assuming that L1 and L2 learning are _____________ ( Stern, 1970 , pp. 57 – 58 ):similar processes
  17. 17Children learning their first language _________ and _______ words and phrases. Therefore, foreign language classes should involve lots of repetition and practice.practice, repeat
  18. 18Children learning their first language practice and repeat words and phrases. Therefore, foreign language classes should involve lots of ________ and ________.repetition, practice
  19. 19Child language acquisition is mainly a matter of _________. Therefore, language classes encourage plenty of ________.imitation, imitation
  20. 20Children practice separate sounds, then words, then sentences. This “____________” should therefore be used in teaching a foreign language.natural order
  21. 21In a child’s speech development, ______________ always precedes __________. Therefore, this must be the correct order of presenting the skills in a foreign language.understanding, speaking
  22. 22A very young child listens and speaks, and ________ and ________are advanced stages of language development.reading, writing
  23. 23The natural order for second language learning is ________, _______, _______, and _________.listening, speaking, reading, writing
  24. 24You did not have to _________ when you were a child. If you were able to learn your own language without ____________, you should be able to learn a foreign language in the same way.translate, translation
  25. 25A small child simply uses _________, without any instruction in formal grammar.language
  26. 26It is equally unnecessary to use _____________________________ in teaching a foreign language.grammatical conceptualization
  27. 27These statements represented the views of those who felt that “the first language learner was looked upon as the foreign language teacher’s __________:dream
  28. 28a pupil who mysteriously laps up his ________, whose _________, in spite of occasional lapses, is impeccable, while morphology and syntax, instead of being a constant headache, come to him like a dream” ( Stern, 1970 , p. 58 ).vocabulary, pronunciation
  29. 29a pupil who mysteriously laps up his vocabulary, whose pronunciation, in spite of occasional _______, is impeccable, while _________ and ________ , instead of being a constant headache, come to him like a dream” ( Stern, 1970 , p. 58 ).lapses, morphology, syntax
  30. 30There are _______ in each of the seven statements—sometimes in the assumption behind the statement about first language learning, sometimes in the _________ or ________that is drawn, and sometimes in both.flaws, analogy, implication
  31. 31Think about the assumption, then the analogy, then the ____________ that is drawn in each of the seven statements about first and second language acquisition.conclusion
  32. 32As _________and ___________ research on both L1 and L2 acquisition gathered momentum, researchers and foreign language teachers began to recognize the mistakes in drawing direct global analogies between L1 and L2 acquisition.cognitive, constructivist
  33. 33As cognitive and constructivist research on both L1 and L2 acquisition gathered momentum, researchers and foreign language teachers began to recognize the mistakes in drawing direct __________ between L1 and L2 acquisition.global analogies
  34. 34By the _______ and _______, criticism of earlier direct analogies between L1 and L2 acquisition had peaked.1970s, 1980s
  35. 35By the 1970s and 1980s, ________ of earlier direct analogies between L1 and L2 acquisition had peaked.criticism
  36. 36Stern (1970), Cook (1973, 1995), and Schachter (1988), among others, addressed the ______________, but at the same time recognized the legitimate _________ that, if viewed cautiously, allowed one to draw some constructive conclusions about SLA.inconsistencies, similarities
  37. 37Stern (1970), Cook (1973, 1995), and Schachter (1988), among others, addressed the inconsistencies, but at the same time recognized the legitimate similarities that, if viewed cautiously, allowed one to draw some __________________ about SLA.constructive conclusions
  38. 38Before proceeding further in this discussion, let’s clarify the ___________ involved. First, it’s illogical to compare the first language acquisition of a child with the second language acquisition of an adult ( Scovel, 1999 ; Foster-Cohen, 2001 ; Ortega, 2009 ; Muñoz & Singleton, 2011 ).parameters
  39. 39This involves trying to draw ____________ not only between first and second language learning contexts, but also between _________ and ________.analogies, children, adults
  40. 40We end up manipulating the ________ of language (L1 and L2) as well as ____ (child and adult), which is a basic flaw in most of the seven statements above.variable, age
  41. 41It’s more logical to compare __________ learning in children and adults or to compare first and second language learning in _______ .second language, children
  42. 42However, consider this: Do five-year-olds and ten-year-olds exhibit differences in ______ and ________ processing? Of course they do!mental, emotional
  43. 43They exhibit a whole array of _______, _______, and __________developmental changes, so a further caution should be made about comparing children and adults under any circumstances.cognitive, affective, physical
  44. 44An aside: There have been a few recorded instances of an adult acquiring a first language, all of which are ____________.pathological
  45. 45In one widely publicized case, Curtiss (1977) wrote about Genie, a thirteen-year-old girl who had been socially isolated and abused all her life until she was discovered by the authorities, and who was then faced with the task of acquiring a _____________.first language
  46. 46In one widely publicized case, Curtiss (1977) wrote about Genie, a thirteen-year-old girl who had been __________ and abused all her life until she was discovered by the authorities, and who was then faced with the task of acquiring a first language.socially isolated
  47. 47Curtiss (1977) wrote about Genie, a thirteen-year-old girl who had been socially isolated and abused all her life until she was discovered by the authorities, and who was then faced with the task of acquiring a first language. Accounts of “_____________” and instances of severe disability fall into this category.wolf children
  48. 48Much of the discussion of the rest of this chapter will be focused on the two types of comparisons described above: 1. SLA in _________ (of varying ages) and adults 2. ____________ L1 and L2 acquisitionChildren, Children's
  49. 49In both cases, __________ will be embedded within a number of issues, controversies, and other topics that have attracted the attention of researchers interested in the relationship of age to acquisition.comparisons
  50. 50In both cases, comparisons will be embedded within a number of _________, _________, and other topics that have attracted the attention of researchers interested in the relationship of age to acquisition.issues, controversies
  51. 51In both cases, comparisons will be embedded within a number of issues, controversies, and other topics that have attracted the attention of researchers interested in the relationship of ______ to ___________.age, acquisition
  52. 52Discussions about age and acquisition inevitably consider the question of whether there is a _____________ (also called a “__________”) for language acquisition: a biologically determined period of life when language can be acquired more easily and beyond which time language is increasingly difficult to acquire.critical period, sensitive period
  53. 53The ________________ claims that there is such a biological timetable.Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)
  54. 54Initially the notion of a critical period was connected only to _____________ ( Singleton & Ryan, 2004 ; Clark, 2009 ).L1 acquisition
  55. 55_______________ of children who failed to acquire their L1, or aspects thereof, became fuel for arguments of biologically determined predispositions ( Lenneberg, 1967 ; Bickerton, 1981 ) timed for release, which would wane if the correct environmental stimuli were not present at the crucial stage.Pathological studies
  56. 56Pathological studies of children who failed to acquire their L1, or aspects thereof, became fuel for arguments of biologically determined _____________ ( Lenneberg, 1967 ; Bickerton, 1981 ) timed for release, which would wane if the correct environmental stimuli were not present at the crucial stage.predispositions
  57. 57Pathological studies of children who failed to acquire their L1, or aspects thereof, became fuel for arguments of biologically determined predispositions ( Lenneberg, 1967 ; Bickerton, 1981 ) timed for release, which would wane if the ________________ were not present at the crucial stage.correct environmental stimuli
  58. 58In recent years, a plethora of research has appeared on the possible applications of the CPH to _____________ ( Birdsong, 1999 ; Scovel, 2000 ; Hyltenstam & Abrahamsson, 2003 ; Moyer, 2004 ; Singleton & Ryan, 2004 ; Ioup, 2005 ; Muñoz & Singleton, 2011 ; Singleton & Muñoz, 2011 ).L2 contexts
  59. 59The classic argument is that a critical point for second language acquisition occurs around ________, beyond which people seem to be relatively incapable of acquiring a second language.puberty
  60. 60This has led some to assume, incorrectly, that by the age of _________ or _______ you are significantly less capable of successful second language learning.twelve, thirteen
  61. 61Such an assumption must be viewed in the light of what it means to be “_________” in learning a second language, and particularly the role of _______ as a component of success.successful, accent
  62. 62To examine these issues, we will first look at _________ and ___________ considerations, then examine cognitive, affective, and linguistic considerations.neurological, phonological
  63. 63To examine these issues, we will first look at neurological and phonological considerations, then examine _________, _________, and ________ considerations.cognitive, affective, linguistic
  64. 64One of the most interesting areas of inquiry in age and acquisition research has been the study of the function of the ________ in the process of acquisition ( Obler & Gjerlow, 1999 ; Schumann et al., 2004 ; Singleton & Ryan, 2004 ; Muñoz & Singleton, 2011 ).brain
  65. 65How might neurological development affect second language success? Does the ________ of the brain at some stage spell the doom of language acquisition ability?maturation
  66. 66Several decades ago researchers were favoring __________ of the brain as the key to answering such a question. There is evidence in neurological research that as the human brain matures, certain functions are assigned, or “_________,” to the left hemisphere of the brain, and certain other functions to the right hemisphere.lateralization, lateralized
  67. 67Several decades ago researchers were favoring lateralization of the brain as the key to answering such a question. There is evidence in neurological research that as the human brain matures, certain functions are assigned, or “lateralized,” to the _____ hemisphere of the brain, and certain other functions to the ______ hemisphere.left, right
  68. 68_____, ______, and ______ functions appear to be largely located in the left hemisphere, while the right hemisphere controls functions related to emotional and social needs.intellectual, logical, analytic
  69. 69Intellectual, logical, and analytic functions appear to be largely located in the __________, while the ___________ controls functions related to emotional and social needs.left hemisphere, right hemisphere
  70. 70Intellectual, logical, and analytic functions appear to be largely located in the left hemisphere, while the right hemisphere controls functions related to ________ and ________ needs.emotional, social
  71. 71Language functions appear to be controlled primarily, but not exclusively, in the ___________, although there is a good deal of conflicting evidence.left hemisphere
  72. 72Other evidence shows right hemisphere lesions to have less impact on language functioning, but Millar and Whitaker (1983) challenged the notion of clear hemispheric divisions in the case of ____________.linguistic ability
  73. 73More interesting is the question of ______ lateralization takes place, and whether or not that lateralization process affects language acquisition.when
  74. 74More interesting is the question of when ___________ takes place, and whether or not that ____________ process affects language acquisition.laterization, laterization
  75. 75The evidence is sketchy. Lenneberg (1967) suggested that laterization is a slow process that begins around the age of _____ and is completed around ________.laterization ,two, puberty
  76. 76Geschwind (1970) posited a much earlier age of completion, while ________ (1973) cited research to support the completion of lateralization around age five.Krashen
  77. 77But Scovel (1984) cautioned against assuming, with Krashen, that lateralization is ________ by age five.complete
  78. 78Adams (1997) found that children up to the age of puberty who suffer injury to the left hemisphere are able to ________ linguistic functions to the right hemisphere, to “____________” their first language with relatively little impairment.relocalize, relearn
  79. 79Scovel (1969) suggested that the ________ of the _____ prior to puberty enables children to acquire not only their first language but also a second language, and that possibly it is the very accomplishment of __________ that makes it difficult for people to easily acquire fluent control of a second language.plasticity, brain, lateralization
  80. 80Do we have a resolution? Not according to Muñoz and Singleton (2011, p. 25 ), who, after reviewing dozens of related studies, concluded that “findings from a number of neurolinguistic studies . . . cannot provide _________ concerning the existence of a ___________.”decisive evidence, critical period
  81. 81One branch of neurolinguistic research focused on the role of the _____ hemisphere in the acquisition of an L2.right
  82. 82Obler (1981, p. 58 ) noted that in SLA, “[_______________] participation is particularly active during the early stages of learning the second language.”significant right hemisphere
  83. 83Obler cited the strategy of guessing at _________, and of using formulaic utterances, as examples of right hemisphere activity.meanings
  84. 84Fred Genesee (1982) concluded that learners in __________ use greater right hemisphere processing than left.informal contexts
  85. 85And Urgesi and Fabbro (2009, p. 361 ) concluded that the right hemisphere is crucially involved in the processing of _________ aspects of language use.”pragmatic
  86. 86Such studies seem to suggest that L2 learners, particularly adults, might benefit from more __________ of __________ activity in the classroom context.encouragement, right-brain
  87. 87Did you know that white-crowned sparrows and other birds exhibit _________ for the acquisition of their unique birdsong? Can birds teach us something about human language acquisition?critical periods
  88. 88A fascinating argument for an accent-related critical period came from Thomas Scovel’s (1988) multidisciplinary review of evidence for a _____________ in various species of mammals and birds.sociobiological critical period
  89. 89A fascinating argument for an accent-related critical period came from ________________ (1988) multidisciplinary review of evidence for a sociobiological critical period in various species of mammals and birds.Thomas Scovel's
  90. 90A fascinating argument for an accent-related critical period came from Thomas Scovel’s (1988) multidisciplinary review of evidence for a sociobiological critical period in various species of _________ and ________.mammals, birds
  91. 91He concluded that the development of a socially bonding accent at puberty enables species (1) to form an _________ with their own _________ as they anticipate roles of parenting and leadership, and (2) to attract mates of “their own kind” in an instinctive drive to maintain their own species.identity, community
  92. 92He concluded that the development of a socially bonding accent at puberty enables species (1) to form an identity with their own community as they anticipate roles of parenting and leadership, and (2) to attract mates of “___________” in an _________ to maintain their own species.their own kind, instinctive drive
  93. 93If the __________ of an accepted, authentic accent is biologically preprogrammed for baboons and birds, why not for human beings?stabilization
  94. 94Scovel (1988) concluded that ________, and therefore “______” accents after puberty, may be a genetic leftover that, in our widespread human practice of mating across dialectal, linguistic, and racial barriers, is no longer necessary for the preservation of the human species.native accents, foreign
  95. 95Scovel (1988) concluded that native accents, and therefore “foreign” accents after puberty, may be a ___________ that, in our widespread human practice of mating across dialectal, linguistic, and racial barriers, is no longer necessary for the __________ of the human species.genetic leftover, preservation
  96. 96Scovel (1988) concluded that native accents, and therefore “foreign” accents after puberty, may be a genetic leftover that, in our widespread human practice of mating across _____, _____, and _____ barriers, is no longer necessary for the preservation of the human species.dialectal, linguistic, racial
  97. 97“In other words,” explained Scovel, “an accent emerging after puberty is the price we pay for our preordained ability to be __________ apes” (p. 80 ).articulate
  98. 98Following another line of research, Walsh and Diller (1981) proposed that different _______ of an L2 are learned optimally at different ages.aspects
  99. 99So, lowerorder processes such as _________ are dependent on early-maturing brain functions, making foreign accents difficult to overcome after childhood.pronunciation
  100. 100Higher order language functions, such as ________, are more dependent on late-maturing neural circuits, which may explain the efficiency of adult learning.semantic relations
  101. 101We are left, then, with some support for a neurologically based critical period, but principally for the acquisition of an _________, and not very strongly for the acquisition of ______________ and other higher-order processes.authentic accent, communicative fluency
  102. 102Some adults have been known to acquire an authentic accent in a second language after the age of puberty, but such individuals are __________ (Ortega, 2009).exceptional
  103. 103Anthropologist _____________ (1970) cited research on non-Western societies that suggested that adults can, in the normal course of their lives, acquire second languages perfectly.Jane Hill
  104. 104Sorenson (1967), for example, studied the ___________ culture of South America, in which at least two dozen languages were spoken.Tukano
  105. 105Each tribal group, identified by the language it speaks, is an ____________ unit (people must marry outside their group) and hence almost always marry someone who speaks another language.exogamous
  106. 106Sorenson reported that during ____________, individuals actively and almost suddenly began to speak two or three other languages with no observed trace of a “________” accent.adolescence, foreign
  107. 107Before drawing a hasty conclusion, however, we do well to remember, with Hill (1970), that language acquisition processes in largely monolingual societies are anything but __________.universal
  108. 108Caution is therefore appropriate in proposing an __________ or cerebral dominance model as a full explanation for adult foreign accents.innatist
  109. 109Caution is therefore appropriate in proposing an innatist or ____________ model as a full explanation for adult foreign accents.cerebral dominance
  110. 110Subsequent research ( Morris & Gerstman, 1986 ; Flege, 1987 ; Moyer, 2004 ; Long, 2007 ; Muñoz and Singleton, 2011 ) has pointed to a multitude of _________, __________, __________, ________, ___________, and __________ variables affecting the ultimate attainment of proficiency in an L2.cognitive, motivational, affective, social, psychological, strategic
  111. 111Subsequent research ( Morris & Gerstman, 1986 ; Flege, 1987 ; Moyer, 2004 ; Long, 2007 ; Muñoz and Singleton, 2011 ) has pointed to a multitude of cognitive, motivational, affective, social, psychological, and strategic variables affecting the ultimate attainment of _________ in an L2.proficiency
  112. 112Do you know anyone who learned a second language after the age of twelve or thirteen, and who developed a “_________” command of the language?perfect
  113. 113How important is ________ in assessing overall ______________ ability? This is a question that linguists argued about for decades, but much less so in recent years. Why is that?accent, communicative language
  114. 114Implicit in the comments of the preceding section is the assumption that the emergence of what we commonly call “_________” is of some importance in our arguments about age and acquisition.foreign accent
  115. 115We can appreciate the fact that given the existence of several hundred ______ (in the throat, larynx, mouth, lips, and tongue) that are used in the _______ of human speech, a tremendous degree of _____ is required to achieve the fluency of a native speaker of a language.muscles, articulation, muscular control
  116. 116In the middle decades of the twentieth century, research on the acquisition of so-called authentic (___________) control of the ____________ of a foreign language supported the notion of a critical period ending at puberty.nativelike, phonology
  117. 117Possible causes of such an age-based factor have already been discussed: neuromuscular plasticity, neurological development, sociobiological programs, and the environment of _________ influences.sociocultural
  118. 118It is tempting to cite exceptions to the rule: people who have the remarkable ability to achieve a virtually perfect nativelike ____________ of a foreign language.pronunciation
  119. 119But in terms of statistical probability, virtually all the research shows that the chances of a person beginning a second language after puberty and achieving a scientifically verifiable authentic _______ accent are slim ( Muñoz & Singleton, 2011 ).native
  120. 120What does the research say? In a series of studies, Gerald Neufeld (1977, 1979, 1980, 2001) tried to determine to what extent adults could approximate native-speaker accents in an L2 never before encountered. Under experimental conditions, adult native English speakers were taught to ________ L2 utterances.imitate
  121. 121Some speakers, but not all, were judged to be native speakers. Others ( Scovel, 1988 ; Long, 1990b ), however, noted flaws in _______ experiments.Neufeld's
  122. 122Bongaerts, Planken, and Schils (1995) recorded the speech of a group of adult Dutch speakers of English and again a few of the ________ performances were _______ to have come from native speakers.nonnative, judged
  123. 123In contrast, Moyer’s (1999) study with native English-speaking graduate students of German found that the subjects were not _______ to be native speakers.judged
  124. 124The findings of these studies are certainly _________, leading us again to the question of the significance of accent in L2 acquisition.equivocal
  125. 125While there is evidence of a ___________ for accent, it appears that such evidence only applies to accent.critical period
  126. 126While there is evidence of a critical period for ______, it appears that such evidence only applies to ________.accent, accent
  127. 127Singleton and Ryan (2004), representing the current prevailing view on accent acquisition, prefer to play down the accent issue and look at other proficiency factors, since “the available evidence does not consistently support the hypothesis that younger L2 learners are ________ more efficient and successful than older learners” (p. 115 ).globally
  128. 128It is important to remember in all these considerations that ___________ of a language is not by any means the sole criterion for acquisition, nor is it the most important one.pronunciation
  129. 129We all know people who have nonnative pronunciation but who nevertheless have excellent and fluent ________ of a second language, ________ that can even exceed that of many native speakers.control, control
  130. 130The acquisition of the communicative and functional purpose of language is far more important than a “_______” native accent—unless of course you’re planning to be an undercover spy in a foreign country!perfect
  131. 131A second caveat in viewing research on accent acquisition comes from mounting evidence, especially in the _____ and _____ of languages, of the inability to define “native” accent at all ( Abrahamsson & Hyltenstam, 2009 ).globalization, indigenization
  132. 132English users are well acquainted with the concept of “____________,” in which many so-called native speakers of English are perceived as having “foreign” accents.World Englishes
  133. 133The native-speaker _____ of linguistic research in the 1960s is both harder to find and less relevant as time moves on ( Birdsong, 2005 ).ideal
  134. 134Bongaerts et al. (1995) found results that suggested that certain learner ________ and _________ may work together to override the disadvantages of a late start.characteristics, contexts
  135. 135Slavoff and Johnson (1995) found that younger children (ages seven to nine) did not have a particular _________ in rate of learning over older (ten- to twelve-year-old) children.advantage
  136. 136Studies on the effects of ________ ( White, 2003 ), of instructional factors ( Singleton & Ryan, 2004 ), and of contextual and socio-psychological factors ( Moyer, 2004 ; Ortega, 2009 ) are all highly promising domains of research on age and acquisition.Universal Grammar
  137. 137Hyltenstam and Abrahamsson (2003) reminded us of the positive side of the miracle of second language acquisition: “More surprising, we would like to claim, are the miraculous levels of ______ that second language learners (at all ages) in fact can reach, despite the constraints that are imposed by our _____________” (pp. 578 – 580 ).proficiency, biological scheduling
  138. 138Perhaps, in our everyday encounters with second language users, we are too quick to criticize the “________” of adult second language learners by nitpicking at minor pronunciation points or nonintrusive grammatical errors.failure
  139. 139Cook (1995) warned against “using native accent as the _________” (p. 55 ) in our penchant for holding up ___________ as the standard.yardstick, monolingualism
  140. 140Instead, perhaps we can turn those perspectives into a more positive focus on the “___________” (p. 52 ) of second language learners.multi-competence
  141. 141Or, in the words of Marinova-Todd, Marshall, and Snow (2000), we would do well to refrain from too much of “a ________ on poor adult learners and an __________ on adults who master L2s to nativelike levels” (p. 9 ).misemphasis, under-emphasis
  142. 142Human ___________ develops rapidly throughout the first sixteen years of life and less rapidly thereafter.cognition
  143. 143Some ___________ changes are critical; others are more gradual and difficult to detect.cognitive
  144. 144A critical stage for a consideration of the effects of age on second language acquisition appears to occur, in Piaget’s outline, at ________ (age eleven in his model).puberty
  145. 145It is here that a person becomes capable of ______________, of formal thinking which transcends concrete experience and direct perception.abstraction
  146. 146Rosansky (1975, p. 96 ) felt that initial language acquisition takes place when the child is highly __________, able to focus on only one __________ at a time, and that this lack of “_________” may well be a necessity for language acquisition.egocentric, dimension, decentration
  147. 147But cognitive arguments still remain persuasive. Young children are generally not “_________” that they are acquiring a language, nor are they _________ of societal values and attitudes placed on one language or another.aware, aware
  148. 148It is said that “a watched pot never boils.” Is it possible that a language learner who is too ___________ of what he or she is doing will have difficulty in learning the second language?consciously aware
  149. 149You may be tempted to answer that question affirmatively, but there is both logical and anecdotal _____________.counterevidence
  150. 150Logically, a superior intellect should facilitate what is in one sense a highly complex __________ activity.intellectual
  151. 151_________ evidence shows that some adults who have been successful language learners have been very much aware of the process they were going through, even to the point of utilizing self-made _______ and other fabricated linguistic devices to facilitate the learning process.Anecdotal, paradigms
  152. 152So, if ____________ is a liability to successful second language acquisition, clearly some intervening variables allow some persons to be very successful second language learners after puberty.mature cognition
  153. 153These variables may in most cases lie outside the cognitive domain entirely, perhaps more centrally in the _______, or ________, domain.affective, emotional
  154. 154Are children possibly better language learners because they excel in implicit learning, that is, the ___________ acquisition of linguistic patterns?incidental
  155. 155Are children possibly better language learners because they excel in _______________, that is, the incidental acquisition of linguistic patterns?implicit learning
  156. 156Robert DeKeyser (2000) thought so, as he contrasted implicit and ______________ (focused attention or instruction).explicit learning
  157. 157Robert DeKeyser (2000) thought so, as he contrasted implicit and explicit learning (focused attention or ___________).instruction
  158. 158In a study of adult native speakers of Hungarian learning English, he found that certain adults, those with high general verbal ability, were able to use explicit learning mechanisms to bypass the “_______________” implicit mechanisms.increasingly inefficient
  159. 159He went on to conclude that “early age confers an absolute, not a ___________, advantage—that is, there may very well be no exceptions to the age effect” (p. 518 ).statistical
  160. 160Despite a strong refutation by Bialystok (2002), the implicit/explicit construct nevertheless holds enticing ____________.explanatory power
  161. 161The _____________ hypothesis may provide another key to cognitive differences between child and adult language acquisition.lateralization
  162. 162As the child matures into adulthood, some would maintain, the left hemisphere (which controls the analytical and intellectual functions) becomes more ________ than the right hemisphere (which controls the emotional functions).dominant
  163. 163It is possible that the dominance of the _____________ contributes to a tendency to overanalyze and to be too intellectually centered on the task of second language learning ( Genesee, 1982 ).left hemisphere
  164. 164____________ is defined as “progressive interior organization of knowledge in a stepwise fashion” ( Sullivan, 1967 , p. 12 ), and is related to the concept of ________.Equilibration, equilibrium
  165. 165That is, cognition develops as a process of moving from states of doubt and uncertainty (_______________) to stages of resolution and certainty (_________) and then back to further doubt that is, in time, also resolved.disequilibrium, equilibrium
  166. 166Piaget (1970) claimed that _________ is a process of progressively moving from states of disequilibrium to equilibrium and that periods of disequilibrium mark virtually all cognitive development up through age fourteen or fifteen when formal operations finally are firmly organized and equilibrium is reached.conceptual development
  167. 167It is conceivable that disequilibrium may provide significant motivation for language acquisition: Language interacts with cognition to achieve _________.equilibrium
  168. 168Perhaps until that state of final equilibrium is reached, the child is cognitively ready and eager to acquire the language necessary for achieving the ___________ of adulthood.cognitive equilibrium
  169. 169That same child was, until that time, decreasingly tolerant of cognitive __________.ambiguities
  170. 170Children are amazingly indifferent to contradictions, but intellectual growth produces an awareness of ambiguities about them and heightens the need for _________.resolution
  171. 171The final consideration in the cognitive domain is the distinction that Ausubel (1964) made between _____ and ____________ learning .rote, meaningful
  172. 172It’s a myth to contend that children are good ___________, that they make good use of meaningless repetition and mimicking.rote learners
  173. 173We have already seen in Chapter 2 that children’s _______ and ______ is a very meaningful activity that is contextualized and purposeful.practice, imitation
  174. 174Adults have developed even greater ___________ and so have greater ability for rote learning, but they usually use rote learning only for _______ memory.concentration, short-term
  175. 175By inference, we may conclude that the foreign language classroom should not become the locus of excessive rote drills, pattern repetition, rule recitation, and other activities that are not in the context of ___________.meaningful communication
  176. 176It is interesting to note that comparisons of child and adult second language acquisition almost always refer, in the case of children, to natural ___________, and for adults, to the _______ of a second language.untutored learning, classroom learning
  177. 177The cause of such superiority may not be in the age of the person, but in the _________ of learning.context
  178. 178A case in point is the role of __________ in human development. Very young children are highly __________.egocentricity, egocentric
  179. 179As children grow older they become more aware of themselves and more self-conscious as they seek both to define and to understand their __________, but their _________ is coupled with awareness of others.self-identity, self-awareness
  180. 180In preadolescence children develop an _______ consciousness of themselves as entities which, in their wavering insecurity, are compared to others.acute
  181. 181They develop _________ to protect this self-identity, fearing to expose too much self-doubt.inhibitions
  182. 182Inhibitions act as invisible “_____” thrown up verbally or nonverbally to encapsulate a fragile ___________.walls, self-concept
  183. 183Their _____ are affected not only in how they understand themselves, but also in how they reach out beyond themselves, how they relate to others socially, and how they use the communicative process to bring on affective equilibrium.egos
  184. 184Isn’t it possible that the uninhibited nature of a child yields a more readily absorbable person? One who doesn’t suffer as much embarrassment as an adult over making a _________ in the second language?faux pas
  185. 185Several decades ago, psychologist Alexander Guiora proposed the concept of the ___________ ( Guiora et al., 1972b ; Ehrman, 1993 ; Dörnyei, 2005 , 2009) to account for the identity a person develops in reference to the language he or she speaks.language ego
  186. 186A person’s __________ is inextricably bound up with one’s language, for it is in the communicative process—the process of sending out messages and having them “_________” back—that such identities are confirmed, shaped, and reshaped.self-identity, bounced
  187. 187The language ego clings to the security of the ____________ to protect the fragile ego of the young adult.native language
  188. 188Younger children are less frightened because they are less aware of language ________ . The possibility of making mistakes in those ________—mistakes that one really must make in an attempt to communicate spontaneously—does not concern them greatly.forms, forms
  189. 189It is no wonder, then, that the acquisition of a new language ego is an enormous undertaking not only for young adolescents but also for an adult who has grown comfortable and secure in his or her own identity and who possesses inhibitions that serve as a wall of defensive protection around the ego. Making the leap to a new or _______________ can be daunting.second identity
  190. 190What is the role of _______ in examining age-related variables? The research is clear that negative _________ can certainly affect success in learning a language.attitude, attitudes
  191. 191But as children broaden their experiences in school, sports, arts, and travel, they also begin to acquire certain attitudes toward types and __________ of people.stereotypes
  192. 192A sometimes neglected factor in considering child–adult comparisons is the power of ___________ . The drive in children to conform to those around them is strong, and usually one that takes on huge significance in the teens.peer pressure
  193. 193Pressure to conform in a bilingual setting can be a powerful _____. Conversely, if the child is the only person in a group to try speaking a second language, the resistance to “sounding funny,” or being given “the look” by other kids will be an equally powerful _____.motivator, motivator
  194. 194A final reminder: In looking at SLA in children, it is important to distinguish younger and older children. Preadolescent children of age ten or eleven, for example, are beginning to develop inhibitions, and it is conceivable that children of this age have a good deal of ___________ to overcome as they attempt to learn a second language. Their __________ could work against them.affective dissonance, self-consciousness
  195. 195Some interesting questions about child __________ have been pursued in the research. People who learn a second language in separate contexts can often be described as _________ —they operate with two meaning systems. In contrast, _________ have one meaning system, that is, one context, in which both languages operate.bilingualism, coordinate bilinguals, compound bilinguals
  196. 196Children generally do not have problems with language “________,” regardless of the separate contexts for use of the languages, as “bilinguals are not two monolinguals in the same head” ( Cook, 1995 , p. 58 ).mixing
  197. 197Most bilinguals, however, engage in____________ (the act of inserting words, phrases, or even longer stretches of one language into the other), especially when communicating with another bilingual ( Arias & Lakshmanan, 2005 ).code-switching
  198. 198Another domain of interest has centered on _________ acquisition ( Montrul, 2011 ), which refers to “________” languages acquired by individuals raised in homes where the dominant language of the region, such as English in the United States, is not spoken or not exclusively spoken in the home.heritage language, family lineage
  199. 199Montrul (2008) described a good deal of heritage language acquisition as “____________” acquisition, caused by a number of intervening factors.incomplete
  200. 200Finally, the ______ of acquisition of both languages in bilingual children is slightly slower than the normal schedule for first language acquisition.rate

Information

Description
1 EL 104 | Principles and Theories of Language Acquisition and Learning Flashcards on ALR A2 Chapter 3 - Part 1, created by Joshua Emerson Pilande on 26/02/2023.
Views
37
Rating

More on Second Language Acquisition and L1–L2 Differences

Feedback

What is it about?

What do you think of the new look?

How do you like it?