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| Question | Answer |
| a) how did Hypocrites change the relationship between doctors and their patients? (3) | 1) Hippocratic oath= no exploitation, morals of curing not making money, confidentiality, high care standard. 2) clinical observation, reduction in generalises cures, symptoms monitored, accurate diagnosis 3) humours, people sought help, did not accept supernatural causes, loss of control, people believed doctors knew how to cure them. Trust. |
| a) how did hypocrites change treatments? (3) | 1) invented 4 humours theory-> opposite treatment and things moderation 2) taught people to look for natural causes of disease instead of accepting supernatural causes, natural treatments not religion. 3) clinical observation made treatments individual to the patients and cures more trailered and monitored for success. |
| a) what were the four humours? | a) blood , yellow bile , black bile , phlegm theory of the causes and treatments of disease |
| a) What did Galen do? (5) | 1. proved that the brain controls the body not the heart + sends messages to muscles via the spinal cord (pig experiment) 2.supported the four humours and followed hypocrites methods of equalising humours, also recording patients symptoms 3. taught that practical study was more important than the theoretical one (books) 4. taught that the body parts were designed to work together perfectly 5. Predicted the bone structure of humans from animal studies and wrote books |
| a) Problems with Galen?(4) | 1.Galen said the body was designed by God so the church adored him and prevented alternative research in medicine -> prevented progress 2. encouraged the study of animals where human bodies un-allowed -> abnormalities in anatomical knowledge about bone structure and how organs worked 3. encouraged incorrect theory of treatment and disease cause, four humours 4. Treatment of opposites lead to the use of blood-letting to reduce the unbalance of 'too much blood' |
| a) what medical care did the poor have? | a) medical knowledge of women, regular exercise, natural remedies (lemon,honey), prayer/ spiritual redemption, wives tale cures, church provided beds, kings touch for scrofula. |
| a) what medicinal care did the rich have that the poor did not? (3) | a) Access to : 1. medical encyclopaedias (Artes 'The Sciences') 2. doctors and surgeons 3. the medicines sold by Apothecaries. |
| a) how good were natural remedies? | a) natural remedies did contain medicinal chemicals (lemon, honey) which could help to cure minor ills. However natural remedies are less effective than our medicine is nowadays because the chemical properties have been refined and enhanced in manufacture. |
| a) how successful were Roman doctors in treating patients? (4) | not very: 1) they charged high prices 2) practised unsuccessful cures based on the 4 humours 3) didn't understand patients conditions 4) didn't know the causes of illness |
| a) what were public health precautions in Roman Britain? (7) | 1. Reservoirs and aqueducts 2. the geographical distance of cities from swamps = less illness 3. public baths = better general hygiene, no flees, reduced spread of disease 4. public toilets and sewer = reduced exposure, less illness less water pollution 5. laws about burying dead and preventing fires 6. soldiers always on the move 7. Roads which enabled communication and movement of doctors |
| a) what were the motivations behind public health provisions in Roman Britain? (2) b) what were the issues with Roman public health provisions? (3) | 1. Distrust of Greek doctors 2. A strong Roman empire needed healthy soldiers (b) 1. As the soldiers travelled around a lot they sometimes brought disease 2. lead pipes in aqueducts = lead poisoning 3. sewers close to the surface/ not enough rainfall= disease |
| a) Were there any hospitals in Roman- England? | a) Yes, there were hospitals of sorts on the battlefield however they were only open to rich or injured soldiers, the common public did not often receive formal medical care. |
| a) How did doctors train in Roman England/ medieval times? (3) b) What did doctors do in Roman England/ medieval times? (3) | a) They were usually self-taught, they learned their practices, treatments and anatomy from hypocrite's and Galen's books. In medieval times the church provided ED. a) They made and sold potions (herb based remedies), knew about the 4 humours, gave treatments to the sick and practised surgery or treated battle wounds. |
| a) what did people believe to be the cause of illness in medieval England? (7) | 1.Punishment from God 2.Witchcraft 3.Planetary alignment 4.Birth month 5.Miasma / spontaneous generation 6.Thinking about being ill (Plague) 7.poisoning, enemy/ jews |
| a) why did public health get worse when the Romans left England? (5) | 1.Roman Public health provisions were destroyed in demonstrations or fell into disrepair because there was no governing body to organise their servicing. 2.Medical books destroyed in libraries, preventing doctors from training. 3.Money spent on war instead of public health, travel was dangerous so medical ideas could not circulate. Tribes didn't share info. 4.The church was the only source of ED and they taught Galen as fact 5. People did not search for cures because they believed illness was a punishment from God |
| a) how did the 4 humours HELP medicinal progress? (2) | a) 1.they caused patients to really trust their doctors as they believed their conditions were understood, which gave doctors more experience. 2. they lead to the idea of food and exercise in moderation. |
| a) How did the 4 humours HINDER medicinal progress? (3) | a) 1.they were incorrect 2. they were so convincing people stopped looking for alternative theory's 3. they lead to dangerous treatments like blood letting. |
| a) why was life expectancy so low in the middle ages? (5) | a) 1. tightly packed houses, disease spread quickly 2. animals proximity to families, animal diseases mutated, poor hygiene 3. no fresh water supply 4. cesspools used to deposit waste 5. streets dirty |
| a) what steps were taken to improve public health in the middle ages? (3) | 1. 1343 gouvernment action taken against butchers selling rotten meat. Butchers had to use a separate area for killing animals 2. open sewers installed and common privys provided 3. carts collected butchers waste to dump in the river |
| a) who offered health care in the middle ages? (6) | a) 1.) Trained Physicians 2.) Apothecary 3.) Barber surgeon 4.) Women 5.) Hospitals 6.) Travelling quacks |
| a) what did trained physicians do in middle ages medicine, what were they like and what education did they have?(5) | a) 1. went to medical school and passed exams 2. learned 4 humours 3. diagnosed patients 4. were incredibly expensive 5. would not bleed you or mix medicines |
| a) what would an Apothecary do in middle ages medicine, what were they like and what education did they have?(3) | a) 1. they were trained, but had no official qualifications 2. chemists, made remedies for doctors always male 3. they were less expensive than other medical figures |
| a) what would a barber surgeon do in middle ages medicine, what were they like and what education did they have? (4) | a) 1.blood letting 2. remove rotten teeth, lance boils, amputate 3. conducted basic surgery with no anaesthetics or means of sanitation and low success rate 4. had tools from other occupations and no real medical training. |
| a) what would a hospital do in the middle ages, what were they like and who ran them? (5) | 1. run by monks and nuns 2. funded by charities and the church 3. They were more of a hospice as only 10% were not treated in any way. 4. wings for specific illnesses offered prayer and music 5. Mainly a place which provided beds |
| a) what would a housewife do in middle ages medicine, what were they like and what education did they have? (3) | a) 1. they knew about traditional remedies and the use of natural ingredients 2. delivered babies 3. no medical training |
| a) what would a travelling quack do in middle ages medicine, what were they like and what education did they have? | a) 1. they were frauds who claimed to cure all ills, they sold unsuccessful medicines, had no proper education and were self-pro-claimed medicine men |
| a) what were Zodiac charts, what were they used for? b) did they aid the progression of medicine? | a) Star sign charts, physicians believed people born in the months where those stars were present were more likely to fall ill. b) no, they stopped people looking for cures and the causes of their illnesses |
| a) what were Urine charts, what were they used for? (3) | 1.Urine charts were used to determine the health of a person based on the colour and taste of their wee. 2.But urine charts could only indicate issues not help cure them or even suggest cures. 3.They simply confirmed that the sick person being visited by the doctor was sick. |
| a) Did Urine charts aid the progression of medicine? | a) Not really, they didn't help physicians treat patients and were not very accurate methods of diagnosis. However they did encourage physicians to observe patients and learn more about the symptoms of illness. |
| a) how is the black death caused? (5) | 1) Flea drinks rat blood that carries bacteria -> (2)bacteria multiplies in fleas gut -> (3) gut becomes clogged with bacteria -> (4) flea bites human and regurgitates into open wound -> (5) human is infected. |
| a) Black death = 2 diseases which two? | a) Bubonic plague pneumonic plague |
| a) what were the symptoms of the black death? (3) | 1) Swellings in the armpits and groin 2) vomiting 3) fever |
| a) what types of treatments were there for the black death in the middle ages? Their success? (6) | 1. Rubbed frogs on boils till they they exploded- (old wives tale, unreliable cure) 2. softened swellings with fig, butter, yeast, onion and cut them open, or pierce boils - this got rid of pus but often infected the healer 3. killing dogs and cats 4. The kings touch 5. rubbing dried toads on the boils 6. prayer |
| a) how did people do to try to prevent getting the black death? (6) | 1. they quarantined people with it 2. wore sweet smelling masks 3. prayed/ did not commit sins 4. cleansed air with fire 5. tried not to look at or think about the BD 6. whipped themselves (flagellants) to revoke sins |
| a) what did people believe caused the BD? (7) | 1. punishment from God 2. Miasma 3. thinking about illness 4. being around infected people 5. the position of the planets 6. Jews poisoning the wells 7. bad digestion |
| a) During the middle ages why was knowledge of the body's anatomy and how it worked quite often incorrect? (5) | 1.The church and Galen encouraged animal dissections - this confused anatomy 2. Medicinal books had been destroyed 3. No knowledge of the internal body 4.There was limited technology, no X rays to show bone structure, 5. focus was cure orientated purely, little research into anatomy. |
| a) what led to the developments in anatomical knowledge during the renaissance? (6) | 1. People began to challenge the believed causes of disease, (supernatural, God, 4 h) 2. Religious le-way on dissection 3. Versalius and Harvey's research 4. Art and science was prioritised-> dissection drawings and documentation 5. printing helped circulate ideas 6. Medicine had funding and support (Royal society) |
| a) what were the governments efforts to improve public health in the plague of 1665? (6) | 1. Every house with the disease was sealed off and painted with a red cross-> primitive quarantine method which reduced spread. 2. At night, when no mourners could attend every person had to be buried in a a grave at east 6 feet deep. 3. Surgeons' were appointed, to examine the dead + establish the extent of the plague. 4. Bills of Mortality were published, to publicise the course of the disease. 5. Householders were ordered to collect all waste, which was then removed by 'rakers'. 6. Stray pigs, dogs, rabbits and cats were killed |
| a) Vesalius existed in the renaissance period. what did Vesalius do in medicine? (5) | 1.human dissections 2. He learned about and detailed human anatomy through drawings and diagrams 3. He learned the inaccuracy of Galen's anatomical knowledge and challenged the teaching of old texts 4. wrote books for training physicians 'fabric of the human body' 5. did not know how to the body could be treated |
| a) what did Pare' do in the renaissance, how helpful was he?(2) | 1. Pare' invented the idea of using ligatures to tie arteries and a boiled poultice of egg yolk and rose oil to treat wounds instead of sealing them with cautery oil/ cauterising . 2. it was successful in improving the chances of survival from surgery however, reducing the risks associated with shock, but introduced germs to the wound and made soldiers more likely to die of infection.- useful when anti-septic arrived. |
| a) What did Harvey do? (4) | 1. Observed living animal hearts in action 2 Discovered the difference between arteries and veins 3. discovered 2 way blood circulation, proved blood could not be used up, proved Galen and bloodletting was wrong 4. Wrote books detailing blood circulation-of later use in major surgery, no aid in cures then, only ended Galen's influence |
| a) what were the only changes in medicine and care between the Middle Ages and Renaissance period? (5) | 1. doctors received more training 2. Galen was less valid 2. Midwives were licensed 3. hospitals occasionally offered surgery/ employed doctors 4. A derivative of opium, laudinum was discovered as a painkiller 5. Pare' taught tying arteries with ligatures and treating wounds with a boiled poultice to improve recovery from surgery |
| a) why did the population explode in the 19th Century? (8) | 1. Cotton trade and cheap clothing 2. soap 3. married younger 4. less alcohol consumed 5. vaccination 6. midwives 7. public health 8. health education |
| a) what did people die of in the 19th century? (8) | a) Measles, Small-pox, Influenza,Whooping cough, Diphtheria, cholera, typhoid,TB |
| a) How were measles, influenza and whooping cough spread in the 19th century? b) how were Cholera and typhoid caught? | a) coughing, sneezing b) drinking contaminated water (c+t) eating contaminated food(t) infected persons sweat, urine,faces |
| a) why did people in the 1900 question Galen? (3) | 1) Galen was inaccurate on human anatomy (Versalius) 2) and the four humours and been disproved as blood could not be used up (Harvey) 3) They had learned from pasture that the air was composed of many different gasses and so no-longer believed in the 4 elements |
| a) How did technology in the 19th century affect medicine and health? (4) | 1.High-speed trains improved communication of medical ideas 2. found an anaesthetic gas which could be used to relieve pain in operations 3.steal syringe and a dye= sanitation 4. microscopes invented, helped identify microbes for medicinal research |
| a) how did political changes in the 19th century affect medicine and health? (4) | 1. Public health laws were introduced, sewage systems 2. The Crimean war led to improvements in hospital care and nursing standards 3. government passed health act and health reform, encouraging councils to improve the cleanliness of cities 4. government started regulating medicine production, to protect from frauds |
| a) how did housing changes in the 19th century affect medicine and health? | a) urbanisation meant that more people were living closer together, were sharing the same resource and disease could spread more quickly |
| a) what did Lady Montagu do? | a) she learned about inoculation against the small pox in Turkey and introduced it to Britain. |
| a) What is inoculation? b) Positives? (1) c) negatives? (3) | a) Inoculation is where you take the pus from the spots of someone with mild small pox and give it to another person through a small cut. b) After a mild reaction the person was immune to smallpox c) sometimes inoculation led to full blown small pox and death as it was difficult to identify a weak case of SP, You needed to know someone with small pox |
| a) who invented Vaccinations? b) why were they better than inoculations? (4) c) when was the small pox vaccination made compulsory? Why didn't ordinary people like it? | a) Edward Jenner b) they were less risky than inoculations, had proof of success and did not leave scarring , if done correctly there were no symptoms of the disease. c) In 1853, when it was made compulsory many people didn't like the gouvernment forcing medicine on them |
| a) why was there opposition to the small pox vaccine?(5) | 1.people didn't understand why it worked 2.people accept that a disease from a cow could protect against a human disease 3. Doctors making money from inoculation didn't want to lose trade to vaccination 4.vaccinations seemed dangerous and not all doctors did them safely, sometimes used infected needles 5. expensive |
| a) What did Pasture discover? (4) | a) Germ theory: 1.He discovered that Germs in the air were causing decay (brewery) 2.microbes in the air were not evenly distributed 3.that germs could be spread from one organism to another (silk worm disease) 4.that they could be killed by boiling liquid and would not develop in vacuums 5.that old bacteria was weaker and could be used in vaccinations (chicken cholera) |
| a) What was pasture's experiment? b) what did he call this method of sanitisation? | a) He took 2 swan necked flasks, boiled the liquid in one to sanitise it, then sucked all the air out and put the lid on. With the other he left it as it was and put the lid on. -The boiled water remained sterile whilst the ordinary water went sour with bacteria b) pasteurisation |
| a) who developed the second ever vaccine? Who developed Germ Theory? | a) Pasture b) Pasture |
| a) who was Robert Koch? b) what did he investigate? | a) A German scientist and pasture's rival. b) he investigated the specific microbes which caused individual diseases. (Anthrax, a disease common in animals as well as humans) |
| a) What did Robert Koch learn? (5) How was he important? | 1.Robert Koch learned how to stain certain microbes to make them more visible under a microscope inorder to identify them 2. He learned that there was a different microbe for every disease and which microbes caused septicaemia, TB, cholera 3. He learned a lot about anthrax 4. He devised a method of proving which germ caused an infection 5. He learned how to grow specific microbes on a perti-dish. He inspired a new generation of scientists to research of other microbes which caused diseases and with knowledge of vaccines find cures and preventative methods, such as magic bullets to eliminate their risks. |
| a) who invented Germ Theory? b) How did it help improve public health? | a) Pasture but Koch provided evidence for it too. b) It provided evidence that things needed to change and in 1875 Parliament passed a public health act forcing councils to improve the state of their streets. |
| a) What dangers to health were there in living in a city in the 19th century? (6) | 1. Sewage system was ineffectual, it was leaky and polluted drinking wells 2. Overcrowding ( many homeless and houses close together) 3. Temporary accommodation, hard to clean 4. privy pales-> excrement on the streets 5. lack of baths (no room in homes + underrated) 6.poverty, scavenging through waste |
| a) What did people think caused disease in the 19th century? | a) 1. Miasma 2. Spontaneous Generation -but they did see the link between dirt and disease |
| a) What are magic bullets? b) when was the first one discovered? c) what was it for? | a) Chemical drugs which destroy bacteria in the body without harming human tissue. Once a bacteria has been identified, scientists look for chemicals to destroy it. b) in the 1930s c) blood poisoning |
| a) Who was John Snow? b) what did he learn?How? | a) He was a London Doctor who studied the causes of cholera b) Snow learned through observation, maps and door to door interviews that polluted water on broad street led to a cholera epidemic. Hense finding that dirty water was the underlying cause for cholera. |
| a) Why was John snow important? | a) He was important because he established the link between polluted water and cholera. He taught people that you could prevent cholera by not drinking dirty water. This challenged peoples beliefs about the origin of cholera, miasma and encouraged public health movements in later years. |
| a) What did Chadwick do? (3) | 1) In 1848, in the cholera epidemic, the gov set up the Board of Health under Edwin Chadwick. 2) Chadwick compiled all the medical knowledge into a report, which blamed bad living conditions for the ill health of poor people and their absence from work 3) He said the solution was improving drainage + sewers, removing waste from the streets, providing clean water and making sure medical officers inspected populated areas. He suggested the use of glazed earthenware pipes for sewage, reducing the possibility of contamination of drinking water. |
| a) what were the positive impacts of Chadwick's report? b) why was it not very successful? | a) after a second cholera epidemic, it encouraged the gouvernment to approve the public health act,1875 b) the gouvernment had no power, to force the rich councils to help the poor, the act was more of a suggestion |
| a) Why was the Public health act opposed by councils? (4) | 1.councils thought looking after the poor was expensive, would mean higher taxes 2.they thought poor people were lazy 3.Councils didn't think it was their business to interfere. 4. There was no concrete proof of the link between dirt and disease |
| a) What did Bazalgette do? b) why did he do it? | a) Bazalgette designed and organised the building of London's first successful sewer, to take waste away from the city b) he believed that Miasma caused disease and sewage smelt bad so he reasoned that removing it would stop people getting ill |
| a) how did Bazalgette's sewers work? b) why did the gouvernment keep rejecting his plans? c)why did the gouvernment change their mind? | a) They harnessed gravity to take the sewage away.The flow of foul water from old sewers and underground rivers was intercepted and diverted along new, low-level sewers, built behind embankments on the river front and taken to new treatment works. They were large enough for a population inc b) they were expensive and they didn't think it would work c) the smell of the river at the houses of parliament was so bad during the great stink |
| a) how did technology make the great clean up possible? (3) | 1. machines and engines, designed for industry were adapted and used to power Bazalgette's sewers 2. soap increased hygiene and flushing toilets reduced contact with excrement, encouraging a cleaner lifestyle 3. Microscope invention enabled research into the causes of disease which convinced governments a clean up was necessary. |
| a) how did the training of doctors improve in the industrial age? | 1. training doctors were taught more detailed medical knowledge,anatomy and physiology dissection allowed 2. training doctors learned germs were the cause of disease 3.medical schools and teaching hospitals were introduced, no longer biased 4.improved technology to work with 5. improved communication, printing press, telegrams. |
| a) who discovered penicillin?When?What did he notice? b) what was he problem with the penicillin mould? | a) John Sanderson, in 1980, he noticed it was successful in treating a nurse's infected wound b) it could not be produced in big enough quantities and was difficult to apply to a patient |
| a) how did war aid the development of penicillin? | a) the gouvernment invested lots of money into the growth and production of Penicillin because they wanted to use it in soldier recovery |
| a) how did the war help the general progression of medicine? | a), 1.millions wounded->lots of technique practice 2.broken bones common-> new, more successful methods arose 3.skin grafts and plastic surgery emerged 4. rare injurys now common, surgeons had more practice 5. bullet wounds needed new methods to prevent infections as they went deep into the body 6.x rays used to find shrapnel=practice 7. blood transfusions needed more often, methods of storing blood and blood group match up disovered |
| a) how did the war help the progression of public health? | a) housing provided by the gouvernment for ex-servicemen, improved living conditions 'housing for heros' The NHS was founded as the gouvernment saw that the original care foundations were overwhelmed during the war and many men were turned away because of malnutrition before the gouvernment got desperate. |
| a) what were the problems with blood transfusions before the war? a) how were they overcome? | a) the blood doctors tried to store and transport coagulated and became useless. They also did not understand that each person has a blood group and the transfusions had to be of the same blood type b) they discovered blood groups and then knew which blood to give patients, they also managed to separate the plasma and dilute it with a saline solution, packing it with ice. This prevented transportation and storage problems. |
| a) why was there opposition to the NHS? | Doctors didn't want to be employed by the gouvernment, they wanted to work and charge however they liked people didn't want higher taxes/thought it was a bad idea straight after the war it was expensive people liked their family doctors and didn't want to switch people wanted to look after themselves when they were ill not have the gouvernment meddling in people didn't want to have to pay for the care of non family/poor/lazy people |
| a) What inaccuracy's with Galen did Vesalius discover? | a) He discovered that: 1. there were no holes in the septum of the heart and blood could not pass through it as galen said. 2. The human jaw was only one bone not 2 like Galen believed. |
| a) How was influential to medicine was Pasteur? | Before he made this discovery, people knew of bacteria, but they believed it was the disease that caused the bacteria (the so-called theory of 'spontaneous generation') responsible. But after he made his discovery ideas of the real causes of disease (micro-organisms already existent in the air causing decay and disease in organic material) began to circulate. |
| a) Who was Florence nightingale? b) What was her upbringing like? | a) The daughter of William (a rich banker in London) and Fanny Nightingale, born in and named after the city of Florence, Italy. b) She was home schooled, maths, History, French ect. by her father, taught to think for herself and given the respect and upbringing similar to that of a male child. |
| a) Why did Florence leave to become a nurse in the Crimean war? | 1) She was deeply religious and believed that it was her duty to do more in service than simply organising rich women's charity schemes like her mother and sister 2) Following her education and home-schooling of controversially male subjects she desired elevation and equal treatment with male genders. 3) Florence fell out with her sister, resulting in Pop having a nervous breakdown. This lead her parents to relent and allow her to study medicine in Germany, deciding the 2 needed to be split up. |
| a) What was the name of the hospital where she worked during the Crimean war? b) What did Florence believe with regards to medicine? | a) Scutari b) she believed that cleanliness was close to godliness and therefore put forward personal hygiene as a way of preventing infection and helping recovery. |
| a) What were the limitations of Florence Nightingale? (4) | 1. She was pragmatic so believed that Germ theory was an unnecessary idea and lead to avoidance of actually doing anything, this meaning she didn't teach training nurses it at her school or properly understand 2. Unaware that the hospital had been built on a sewer so could not understand the loss of life there and blamed her supervisors for their incompetence. 3. Her hospital actual had the highest death rate of any during the crime an war. 4. She had only basic knowledge (that the bandages should be clean) and was not a very good hands on nurse |
| a) How did Florence help in the Scutari hospital, during the Crimean war? (7) | 1) Her 38 nurses helped reduce the under-staffing, made soldiers more frequently attended to 2) Improved organisation of the hospital, made sure medical supplies were correctly distributed and paperwork was correct to receive food (Finding that thousands of cabbages had been dumped in the river) 3)Improved the personal hygiene of soldiers 4)Campaigned for more supplies in the hospital. 5) Made women present in military nursing ,revoked the B/W stereotypes of female prostitution or incompetence 6) Became a symbol of morale in her emot impact on soldiers and families of the deceased (through letters) 7)Made a report on Scutari, invested the causes for the death rate there + she gave support to public health movements. |
| a) Who was Sydney Herbert? | a) The secretary of war who asked Florence to take a small expedition (38) of nurses with her to investigate the conditions in the Crimean war hospitals, in order to stop the negative press. |
| a) Why did the gouvernment decide improvements to hospitals were needed during the Crimean war? (4) | 1) Because the war was not as easily fought as anticipated and the facilities for treatment of the wounded quickly became insufficient. 2) war reporters made the state of the hospitals known to the public + cultivated anger and feelings that they were not doing what was necessary for soldiers care 3) They did not have the linen to make bandages or nurses or surgeons and many men were dying. 4) There was a serious outbreak of cholera which reduced the soldiers numbers greatly |
| a) What did Florence do for training nurses when she got back to England? | a) She set up the first medical school for female nurses in London. |
| a) Who were Crick and Watson? | a) Crick and Watson were the scientists who discovered the structure of DNA, they compiled the evidence and photographs taken by other scientists like Rosalind Franklin which suggested a double helix structure and the pairing of bases, adding only the idea that the backbone molecule ran in 2 strands to enable DNA replication. |
| a) What factors helped lead to the discovery of the structure of DNA? | 1) Technology and science: The arrival of microscopes and x-rays made photography of DNA possible, enabling evidence for the structure of DNA to be compiled 2) Individuals: Crick + Watson in their teamwork to compile information and make judgements based upon it 3) The work of other scientists: eg. Rosalind Franklin whose evidence and findings were used in the report and were used solely to support the hypothesis of DNA's structure. |
| a) Who were Florey and Chain? | a) Howard Florey and Ernst Chain decided to develop Fleming's discovery further and set about finding a way to turn the pencillin mould juice into a pure drug, which would be more suitable for the treatment of humans against infections. With the help of drug companies and the US gouvernment they were successful in mass-producing the drug. |
| a) Who discovered penicillin? b) How did he discover it? | a) Alexander Fleming b) In 1928 Fleming was research assistant to Sir Almroth Wright working on bacteria. He accidentally discovered a mould on a set of culture dishes, which were being used to grow the staphylococci germ (which turns wounds septic). After having left the dishes unclean in the lab while on holiday Fleming noticed that where there was mould the germs had stopped developing. |
| a) What did Fleming do with his discovery of penicillin? | a) He published an article but left the mould un-altered and with no further research. |
| a) How was penicillin tested? | Florey's team found a way of purifying penicillin, they tested it first on mice and then on human patients, a policeman- Albert Alexander first. The patient began to recover after receiving the drug, but unfortunately supplies ran out due to their inability to produce it in large quantities. Later they tested with greater quantities on other human subjects, finding that the biggest issue in the development of penicillin was mass production not human suitability. |
| a) What did Garret Anderson do? | 1) She was the first female doctor to qualify in England 2) She enrolled as a nursing student at Middlesex Hospital and attended classes intended for male students 3) She passed exams and gained a certificate from the society of apothecaries 4) She taught herself French and went to the University of Paris, where she earned a medical degree. 5) She founded the New Hospital for Women in London (later renamed after its founder), staffed entirely by women. |
| a) Who was Aneurin Bevan? | a) The welsh Labour politician who founded the NHS. |
| a) Who was Charles Chamberland? (2) | a) A French micro-biologist who worked with Pasteur 1. he developed a type of filtration known today as the Chamberland filter ,with holes smaller than bacteria to ensure the bacteria can be removed from a solution. 2. They discovered the second ever vaccine and the theory behind it (injecting weakened or dead strains of a disease give immunity) |
| a) How was the second ever vaccine discovered? Who by? What was it against? | a) Charles Chamberland worked with Pasteur and came up, by chance, with a vaccine for chicken cholera. He went away on holiday, forgetting to inject the disease into some chickens as he had been told. When he came back he saw the jar of bacteria sitting on the side and thought he would inject it into the chickens anyway. To his amazement they did not die. He reported this to Pasteur, who told him to inject a fresh form into the chickens. He went on to injecting the fresh form into same chickens, and they didn't die.[2] He had found a vaccine. |
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