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| Question | Answer |
| Explanations of attachment 1. learning theory- classical conditioning | key terms- -unconditioned stimulus (UCS)- Something that illicit's a natural response, it is innate -unconditioned response (UCR)- the natural response to UCS. -Neutral stimulus (NS)- A stimulus that evokes no natural response -conditioned stimulus (CS)- a stimulus that you have learnt to respond to, via association (was previously the NS) -Conditioned response (CR)- the learned repsonse to the previously neutral stimulus. |
| Explanations of attachment 1. learning theory- classical conditioning | Pavlov -before conditioning Food>salivation food-unconditioned stimulus salivation- unconditioned response -during conditioning food+bell= salivation food- unconditioned stimulus bell-neutral stimulus salivation-unconditioned response -after conditioning bell>salivation bell- conditioned stimulus salivation- conditioned response |
| Explanations of attachment 1. learning theory- classical conditioning | Applied to attachment -before conditioning Food/milk> relief from hunger/pleasure food/milk- conditioned stimulus relief- unconditioned response NS- mother- no response -During conditioning Food/milk+mother> relief from hunger/pleasure food/milk- unconditioned stimulus mother- neutral stimulus relief- unconditioned response -After conditioning mother>relief from hunger/pleasure mother- conditioned stimulus relief- conditioned response THIS FORMS THE ATTACHMENT |
| Explanations of attachment 1. learning theory- classical conditioning | According to the learning theory, there are two main ways of how we learn; 1. classical conditioning 2. operant condtioning |
| Explanations of attachment 1. learning theory- classical conditioning | positive and negative reinforcement- attachment being formed an attachment can be formed through operant conditioning by using positive reinforcement. Behaviour is rewarded, so this is more likely to happen again. -through feeding- attachment grows -baby cries-rewarded-being fed (positive reinforcement) -mother doesn't like crying sounds-feeds the baby to stop the crying- negative reinforcement *Negative reinforcement- to get rid of something bad -repeated next time -unpleasant sound. so the attachment is formed through positive reinforcement for the baby and negative reinforcement for the mother. |
| Explanations of attachment 1. learning theory- classical conditioning | *the learning theory argues that we can predict and control behaviour in animals *behaviour is encouraged through conditioning-learned responses *behaviourists believe we are born as 'blank slates' and all behaviour is leant, meaning that we learn how to act, or re-act in certain situations. *this involves 2 forms of conditioning, classical and operant conditioning. |
| Evaluation of the learning theory as an explanation of attachment strength | -scientific evidence - the research evidence to support both classical and operant conditioning theories as explanations for attachment are scientific. -Pavlov (1927) and Skinner (1974) conducted lab experiments under controlled conditions to asses classical and operant conditioning. -e.g. for classical, the IV was the different stimuli introduced to a dog, e.g. a bell, a musical box etc. -the DV was the amount of salivation and whether an association had taken place. -the variables were clearly operationalised and easy to replicate -strength as the theory can be generalised and applied to explain attachment. -it can explain how we can learn to associate the caregiver who gives us food with pleasure. -this is then the basis for the attachment bond. |
| Evaluation of the learning theory as an explanation of attachment weakness 1 | 1. Schaffer and Emerson (1964) For example schaffer and emerson observed 60 babies in Glasgow over a year. -the first attachment formed by 39% of babies was not to the person who carried out physical care, such as feeding and changing the baby's nappy. -attachments are more likely to be formed to those who are sensitive and rewarding to the baby and who play with them. -these findings challenge the learning theory's view of attachment formation because there is conflicting research because it is not following the learning theory of an attachment being formed through feeding. -even though a lot were, 39% of babies didn't. -this suggests that it is not through physical care, but through sensitive and rewarding the baby and interacting. |
| Evaluation of the learning theory as an explanation of attachment weakness 2 | Harlow and Harlow (1962)- Infant monkeys -a weakness is that there are numerous studies which suggest that attachment is not based on feeding, for example the harlow and harlow study. -Harlow and Harlow conducted an experiment using infant monkeys -the infant monkeys had been separated from their mothers as soon as they were born. -the monkeys were kept in cages and had a blanket to comfort them. -when this blanket was taken to be cleaned, the monkeys showed signs of distress. -Harlow and Harlow then introduced two wire monkeys, one of which was just wire but with food and the other one had a cloth around it. -the monkey didn't form any attachment with the feeding wire doll, it only went to it to be fed. -the monkey did form an attachment with the cloth covered doll -the monkey spent 22 hours out of 24 hours of its time with the cloth covered doll. -this suggests that the monkey formed an attachment with the 'comfort' doll not the feeding one so this goes against the learning theory of the attachment being formed through 'feeding'. -this study indicated that simply supplying food is not sufficient for the formation of attachment. -this therefore questions the learning theory as an explanation of attachment. -comfort, care and safe-feeling |
| Evaluation of the learning theory as an explanation of attachment weakness 3 | 3. Alternative explanations - John Bowlby (1969) -another weakness is that the learning theory ignores the considerable evidence pointing to the importance of innate aspects of attachment that are looked at by John Bowlby's theory. -he suggests that infants are born with an innate tendency to form an attachment that serves to increase their chances of survival. -an attachment is a reciprocal (two-way) process, he suggests it is likely that adults are also innately programmed to become attached to their infants, otherwise they would not respond to their infant and an attachment bond could not develop. -therefore the process of attachment is not learnt but an innate process for the caregiver and child. -this therefore challenges the learning approach as an explanation of attachment. |
| recap of the learning theory of attachment | attachment is: an emotional relationship between two people in which there should be a close bond and they feel safer and more secure when the attachment figure is present. Mutual bond that is strong and should still be just as strong even when the 2 people aren't physically together but the bond is still there. behavioural theory and the learning theory are the same theory -according to learning theory ALL behaviour is learnt -innate means- you are born with it. -2 types of conditioning 1. classical conditioning- this is the learning process that occurs when 2 stimuli are repeatedly paired. An infant is born with natural, reflex responses. An association between an environmental stimulus and a naturally occurring stimulus. -operant conditioning- this is sometimes known as the instrumental conditioning. It is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behaviour. Association is made through this between behaviour and consequences for this behaviour. Reinforcing behaviour. classical conditioning: according to the learning theory, the baby has to learn to form an attachment with his mother. By the process of classical conditioning, the baby forms an association between the mother (a neutral stimulus) and the feeling of pleasure that comes from being fed (an innate, unconditioned response). At first the baby simply feels comforted by food. However each time he is fed, the mother is there too. He quickly associates the mother with the pleasure of being fed. Before long, the mother stimulates a feeling of pleasure on her own, even without food. This means the baby feels happier when the mother is near. It is the beginning of attachment. operant conditioning: according to the learning theory, the baby has to learn to form an attachment with his mother. In the process of operant conditioning , the mother rewards the infant by feeding him, so the infant associates the mother with the reward, and repeats any action that brings her close. This happens because food brings a feeling of pleasure (=reward) to the baby. Food is a secondary reinforcer: by removing discomfort, it reinforces the behaviour that led to its arrival. But food never comes without the mother bringing it, so the mother becomes the primary reinforcer-even without bringing food, the presence of the caregiver reduces discomfort and brings a feeling of pleasure. The baby will therefore repeat any actions e.g. crying, which brings the caregiver close. key terms and definitions: *learning theory is aka: behavioural theory *the basic principle of learning/behavioural theory: all behaviour has been learnt. *classical conditioning: learning through an association *innate: instinctive/inborn *stimulus: an event that causes a response. |
| 2. John Bowlby's explanation of attachment | -rather than suggesting that the child's formation of attachment was linked to the environment and learning. Bowlby argued that attachment evolved and ensured the survival of the child. -he began developing his ideas in the 1940's. -Bowlby drew on a variety of different influences to develop his theory. |
| 2. John Bowlby's explanation of attachment - innate | Innate- the underlying basis of Bowlby's theory was the innate nature of attachment. -he suggests that infants are born with an innate tendency to form an attachment that serves to increase their chances of survival. -an attachment is a reciprocal process, it is likely that adults are also innately programmed to become attached to their infants, otherwise they would not respond to their infant and an attachment bond could not develop. -babies possess instincts such as crying and smiling which encourage the caregiver to look after them. -parents, especially mothers possess instincts designed to protect their baby from harm and to nurture them to ensure their survival to maturity. |
| 2. John Bowlby's explanation of attachment - Monotropy | Monotropy is the idea that a single attachment to one person is important to the baby. -Bowlby did not deny that babies formed lots of attachments but he believed that for every infant, one relationship is more important than the rest and exists at the top of the hierarchy. |
| 2. John Bowlby's explanation of attachment - critical period | Critical period- Bowlby thought that the process of attachment took place within a sensitive period during the first 3 years of the child's life. -He borrowed this concept from the work of Lorenz who had pointed to the rapid formation of attachments in some animal species. -from Bowlby's research with troubled adolescents, he believed that the attachment between caregiver and child should not be disrupted or broken for any reason before the age of three years or there would be serious consequences. |
| 2. John Bowlby's explanation of attachment- internal working model | Internal working model- Bowlby argued that the first attachment between the baby and the caregiver provided the child with an internal working model, or template for their future relationships. -in the first attachment, the child is said to build up a model of themselves as lovable or not, a model of the caregiver as trustworthy or not and a model of the relationship between the two. -Bowlby argued that the internal working model, began in early childhood, influenced the child's later relationships through to adulthood. -this is referred to as the continuity hypothesis. -Bowlby also drew on the work carried out by the Harlow's with rhesus monkeys who were showing the importance of the mother-figure providing comfort and security for the infant, a concept he developed into the idea of a 'safe base'. |
| Evaluation of John Bowlby's theory - strength | - a study which supports Bowlby's theory was conducted by Hazen and Shaver (1987). -they published a 'love quiz' in an american newspaper, collecting info from people about their early attachment experiences and their current romantic attitudes and experiences. -they found that individuals who were securely attached as infants tended to have happy and lasting romantic relationships and believed that love was enduring and about mutual trust. -in contrast, insecure types found relationships less easy, were more likely to be divorced and felt that love was rare. -this supports the internal working model model because Bowlby suggested that during the sensitive period, the children with bad attachments will not have a good, loving future relationship. |
| Evaluation of John Bowlby's theory - weakness 1 | 1. sentenced - a weakness of Bowlby's theory suggests that poor early relationship experience 'sentence' a person to poor adult relationships. -Main and Golgwyn (1984) argued that although some people have had difficult childhoods and insecure attachments, many have gone on to develop positive and secure relationships in adulthood, which they called 'earned security'. -this may be due to positive school experiences or strong adult attachments, which have led them to develop feelings of security and trust later in their lives. -research by Rutter and Quinton (1988) found that women who had a range of difficult early experiences developed security if they had positive school experience and strong adult relationships in later life. -this therefore goes against the internal working model as it shows that people with bad childhood experiences can develop strong adult hood relationships. |
| Evaluation of John Bowlby's theory - weakness 2 | 2. multiple attachments -many psychologists have argued that the babies first attachment figure (generally the mother) is not necessarily special or unique. --Schaffer and Emerson's observational longitudinal study of 60 Glasgow babies found that multiple attachments seemed to be the norm for babies rather than the exception. -by about 7 months of age, just under a third (29%) of babies had multiple attachments. -by the age of 10 months, this figure had risen to almost two thirds (59%) -at 18 months 87% of babies had multiple attachments. -Schaffer and Emerson also found that the strongest bond was not necessarily to the mother as Bowlby had implied. -at 18 months, only half of the sample was strongly attached to their mothers and about a third were strongly attached to their fathers. -this study therefore questions the monotropy theory as he suggests babies make one attachment that is always the strongest and more important than the rest. |
| Evaluation of John Bowlby's theory - weakness 3 | 3. fathers -another weakness of Bowlby's theory is that he focused on the attachments between babies and their mothers and overlooked the importance of fathers. -in fact he believed that fathers were of little importance in their children's lives. -however research shows that the children's relationships with their fathers are important in their own right. -the relationship a child has with their father often depends on the amount of time the father spends with the baby and how involved he is in child-rearing. -Ross et al (1975) have argued that there is a clear positive correlation between the number of nappies the father has changed and the strength of the child's attachment. Lamb (1983) has studied relationships of babies with their fathers and notes that fathers are often preferred as playmates to mother's as their play is often more physical and unpredictable. -this therefore questions the innate feature of the theory as Bowlby said mothers have instincts that protects their children from any harm to ensure the child's survival. |
| the 'strange situation' in attachment research | Mary Ainsworth (a student of John Bowlby) and Bell (1970) used the 'strange situation' technique to assess different types of attachment in infants. |
| the 'strange situation' in attachment research- AIM | AIM- to produce a method of assessing quality of attachment between mother and child. |
| the 'strange situation' in attachment research- METHOD | METHOD- *100 middle class american infants and their mothers took part in this study *a method of controlled observation was developed. as it is controlled it is classed as an experiment with observation. it is known as the observation technique. this involved observing infants with their mothers during a set of predetermined activities. *this involved a specific 8 step procedure, known as the 'strange situation'. all the sessions, except the first one, took three minutes. *the steps included the child being introduced to the room with toys in, being left alone by the mother in the room. being approached by a stranger, with the mother then returning to comfort the child (reunion). |
| the 'strange situation' in attachment research- OBSERVERS RECORD THE FOLLOWING | OBSERVERS RECORD THE FOLLOWING: 1. the infants willingness to explore- whether the infant uses their mother as a safe base. 2. separation anxiety- the level of unease shown by the infant when the caregiver leaves. 3. stranger anxiety- the infants' response to the presence of the stranger 4. reunion anxiety- the way the caregiver was greeted by the infant on their return. |
| the 'strange situation' in attachment research- NOTE | NOTE- Ainsworth believed that the attachment type shown by the child was due to how sensitive the mother was to their infant's needs. -the mothers who responded correctly to their infants needs produced secure attachments. -mothers who are less sensitive or ignore their infants needs produce insecure attachments with their infants. |
| Evaluation of the strange situation- strengths | -one of the strengths is with the methodology used. -this is because due to the controlled nature of the observations it is easy for other researchers to replicate the study to check for reliability. - reliability is important because it allows us to see how accurate the results are and by the study being reliable, we can trust and use the study in the future. -aspects of the strange situation that make it easy to replicate are the sample size and class, the environment the study took place in and the method used to carry out he study. - for example Wartner (1994) replicated the strange situation in Germany and found that 78% of the children they studied had the same attachment type at ages 1 and 6. - this is a strength as it shows the strange situation technique as reliable. -this is because the attachment type was shown to be consistent across different occasions. |
| Evaluation of the strange situation- strengths | Another strength is there is supporting research to back up Ainsworth's research. -Cantero and Cerezo (2001) observed 112 Spanish mothers interacting with their babies from the age of 5 to 15 months. - at 15 months, the strange situation was used to classify attachment type. -it was found that securely attached infants (type B) did have more sensitive mothers. -also, type A infants received controlling or rejecting parenting and type C was more associated with lack of responsiveness from the mother. -therefore this provides support for the suggestion of the sensitivity of the mother affecting attachment type and demonstrates reliability of the strange situation. |
| Ethnocentric | Research is ethnocentric when it assumes the research findings conducted in a particular culture, can be generalised to all cultures |
| Evaluation of the strange situation- weakness | One weakness is that the strange situation technique can be said to lack validity. -it lacks population validity because it is only using a sample from America and using a specific class of people. -it lacks ecological validity because it is not an everyday situation for the mother and child. -the baby wouldn't be left in a room for the mother to leave and be left with a stranger -this is a weakness as it means we cannot generalise the results outside of the population used or to other situations. -children of a different social class or in different countries may show different attachment types. -also, in a different situation the child may show a different attachment type. -therefore the results cannot be seen to be completely accurate. |
| Evaluation of the strange situation- weakness | another weakness are the ethical issues associated with the strange situation technique. -the observation took place in an unfamiliar place to the child, in which their mother left them and a stranger approached. -this is likely to break the ethical issue of psychological harm because the baby wouldn't of known what was going on and could become very distressed and wouldn't understand if they were to be debriefed. -although both the mother and researcher were able to stop the experiment if the infant became too distressed, the level of stress experienced was much higher than Schaffer and Emerson's (1964) research which was carried out in the child's own home. -this is a problem as problems with ethics make it harder to gain ethical approval in order to replicate the research. -without being able to replicate Ainsoworth's work it is hard to show reliability in results. |
| a summary of the evaluation points | STRENGTHS -methodological strengths- reliability and replicating- Wartner (1994). -supporting research- Cantero and Cerezo (2001)- sensitivity of mother affects the type of attachment. WEAKNESS- lack of validity- population validity- sample- American and class and ecological validity. -ethical issues- psychological harm and no debrief. |
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