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| Question | Answer |
| Being a foster mother - Joyce Robertson 1971 | She cared for them in her own home. She arranged for children to visit mothers in hospital and to bring things from home with them to maintain emotional bonds with home during separation. These children slept and ate well and welcomed their parents at end of stay. Contrasts with John. |
| Retarded women - Skeels and Dye 1939 | Compared development of one group of orphans who were raised in a home for retarded women who gave them attention, and with a control group who stayed in the original institution. After 1.5 years, IQs of control fell from average of 87 to 61, and average rose from 64 to 92 in orphans with retarded women. Skeels assessed children 20 years later and effects still apparent. Emotional care received received from women reduced emotional deprivation experienced in institution. |
| Children with tuberculosis - Bowlby 1956 | Under 4 when first hospitalised. Strict nursing regimes strict and care impersonal. Data was collected about children when they were between 7 and 14. Psychologists assessed them and teachers were interviewed. When compared with control group of children, found that no difference in terms of delinquency or problems socialising. Deprivation doesn't inevitably lead to ill effects. |
| Revisiting maternal deprivation hypothesis - Rutter 1981 | Bowlby confused cause and effect with association. Suggested instead that instead it could be that some families are at risk because of things like poor living conditions or bad interpersonal relationships. Both these could cause both separations and later maladjustment. |
| Isle of Wight - Rutter 1976 | Interviewed over 2000 boys and their families on Isle of Wight and found delinquency most common in cases where boys had experienced separations due to discord in their families. Supports Rutter's hypothesis that it's family discord rather than separation on it's own that causes delinquency and emotional maladjustment. |
| Longitudinal study of ex institutional children - Hodges and Tizard 1989 | To see effects of early privation on subsequent social and emotional development. Natural experiment. 65 children placed in institution when less than 4 months old. Explicit policy that caregivers couldn't form attachments. By age of 4, 24 of institutionalised children had been adopted and 15 returned to natural homes. Rest stayed in institution. Assessment at 8 and 16 interviewing children, parents, teachers and peers. Adopted children generally had close attachments with their new parents and good family relationships. Much less true with restored children. However both groups were more likely to seek adult attention and approval than control children, and both groups less successful in peer relationships. Recovery is possible. |
| Thoughts on Hodges and Tizard's studies - Clarke and Clarke 1979 | May be that adopted children got on well with families because they made special efforts to love them, whereas they didn't experience this outside the house and so were unable to form relationships as easily or well. |
| Romanian orphans - Rutter 1998 | 111 Romanian orphans adopted into British families before age of 2. On arrival children physically undersized, but by 4 had caught up. However, age at adoption was negatively correlated with attainment of developmental milestones. The later children adopted, the slower their progress. Suggests the longer children experience emotional deprivation, the longer it will take for them to recover, but recovery is possible. |
| Ex institutional women - Quinton 1985 | Followed group of women reared in institutions. They had extreme difficulties when they were parents. Their children more frequently in care and women less sensitive, less supportive and else warm than control group. However it may not be privation, may be that they had inadequate models for how to parent. |
| One primary attachment - Schaffer and Emerson 1964 | Even though infants do form several attachments, they usually have one special attachment. |
| Czech twins - Koluchova 1976 | Identical Czech twins whose mother died giving birth. They went to children's home for 11 months, spent 6 months with aunt, then father and stepmother. Father of low intelligence, stepmother exceptionally cruel. Boys never allowed out of house, kept in closet or cellar. When discovered at 7, they could hardly walk, had acute rickets, very fearful and speech very poor. After hospital and foster home, excellent gains made. Now adults and appear well adjusted. |
| The Ganda tribe - Ainsworth 1967 | Childcare involved several carers, yet infants nonetheless formed one primary attachment. |
| Following group of Romanian orphans - Rutter 2007 | Followed group of Romanian orphans, assessing at 4, 6 and 11.They had spent early years in extreme physical and emotional privation in Romania before being adopted. Children adopted after 6 months, showed disinhibited attachments and problems with peers. Adopted before 6 months showed normal levels of developments. |
| The Efe pygmies - Tronick 1992 | Children live in extended family groups, and infants looked after by whoever is closest to hand. Breastfed by different women but sleep with mother. Found that at 12 months, the infants still showed preference for mother, a single primary attachment. |
| Genie - Curtiss 1977 | Found when 13. She was strapped to a potty in a bare room. her father punished her if she made a sound. Her appearance was that of a 6 year old. Curtiss described her as unsocialised, primitive, and hardly human. Made virtually no sounds and could hardly walk. She never achieved good social adjustment or language despite intervention and being placed with foster family. |
| The Czech twins and Genie - Rymer 1993 | The Czech twins had each other. Genie's mother claimed she had relationship with Genie, but this is unlikely. Could be Genie's father locked her away because he thought she was retarded. Czech twins were cared for by pair of loving sisters, but Genie's foster care abused her. |
| 40 adults adopted late in childhood - Triseliotis 1984 | They all appeared to have recovered even after late adoption. |
| Reactive attachment disorder - Parker and Forrest 1993 | Symptoms include a lack of ability to give and receive affection, cruelty to others especially pets, abnormalities in eye contact, speech patterns, lying and stealing, lack of long term friends and extreme control problems. |
| The Kibbutzim - Fox 1977 | Children spend most of their time with nurses called metapelets, but see mothers for a few hours a day after work. When children placed in strange situation, protested equally when mother and metapelet left, but more comforted by mother on reunion. However, metapelets changed fairly frequently and had to divide attention to several infants, which could explain why children less attached to metapelet. |
| John Bowlby 1953 | Maternal deprivation hypothesis |
| Young boy not wanted by mother - Flanagan 1996 | Mother offered him for adoption. Followed by series of foster homes until he was adopted at 18 months old. However appeared unable to accept affection of adoptive parents, and as an older child, lied, stole, sent death threats and flew into wild rages. |
| Depression in children in hospital - Spitz and Wolf 1946 | 100 children who became seriously depressed after staying in hospital. Generally recovered well if separation lasted less than 3 months. Longer separations rarely associated with recovery. |
| Jones 1987 | Maternal rejection an occur even when mother is present, as in the case of primary rejectors. Usually unwanted children from middle class women, who may have good relationships with other children, and offer good physical care, but rejection starts from birth and the relationship never recovers. Gradually guilt and lack of empathy in mother turns into anger and later, as child grows up, period of stress or naughtiness may result in excessive punishment and abuse. |
| 44 juvenile thieves - Bowlby 1944 | Wanted to test maternal deprivation hypothesis. 88 children ranging from 5 to 16, who'd been referred to child guidance clinic where Bowlby worked. 44 referred to clinic because of theft. Identified 16 of these as affectionless psychopaths. None of control group diagnosed as affectionless psychopaths. Interviewed children and parents to learn about early life experiences. 86% of affectionless psychopaths experienced early and prolonged separations from mothers. Only 17% of other thieves had experienced such separations. Only 4% of control group had experienced this. Findings support maternal deprivation hypothesis. |
| German infants - Grossman and Grossman 1991 | They found the infants they studied were more likely to be classed as insecurely attached than securely attached using the strange situation. This contrasts with the view of consistency across cultures. |
| Caribbean cultures - Thomas 1998 | Questions whether tendency to form a single main attachment is actually good for healthy psychological development. Claims that in Caribbean culture, multiple attachments are the norm. |
| Beneficial several attachments - Parke 1981 | They are beneficial because of their qualitative differences. For example, a fathers' style of play is physically stimulating, whereas mothers' more likely to hold, soothe and read the children stories. |
| Meta-Analysis - Van Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg - 1988 | Overall mean: 65% secure, 21% avoidant and 14% resistant. Great Britain had most secure attachments with 75%. West Germany most avoidant with 35%. Israel most resistant with 29%, although in Takahashi's study, 32% of Japanese infants were resistant. |
| On Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg's meta-analysis - Bee 1999 | Most striking finding is there is considerable consistency across cultures. She concludes that it is likely that same caregiver-infant interactions contribute to secure attachments in all cultures. |
| Minnesota longitudinal study - Sroufe 1999 | Followed children from 12 months to adolescence. The children rated throughout childhood by teachers, trained observers and camp counsellors. Children rated as securely attached were also rated as being more popular, more initiative, being higher in social competence, self confidence and self esteem. Supports Bowlby's continuity hypothesis. |
| Group of insecurely attached women - McCarthy 1999 | Group of women contacted who were insecurely attached in infancy, and they had their attitudes and experiences of relationships and friendships recorded. Women previously classified as 'avoidant insecure' more likely to have romantic problems and those classified as 'resistant-insecure' to have friendship problems. |
| The love quiz - Hazan and Shaver 1987 | Published a love quiz in American newspaper, collecting information from people about their early attachment experiences, and their current romantic attitudes and experiences. They found individuals more securely attached tended to have happy and lasting love relationships and to believe that love was enduring and about mutual trust. Insecure types found relationships less easy and more likely to be divorced and think love is rare. Supports Bowlby's internal working model. |
| Strange situation study in Germany - Wartner 1994 | 78% of children classified the same way at 1 and 6 years old. Shows strange situation is reliable. |
| Differences in classification using strange situation at different ages - Melhuish 1993 | When these differences occur, it is normally associated with changes in the form of care, like changes in family structure. |
| Infants behave differently depending on who with - Lamb 1977 | May be classified as having a secure relationship with father, but avoidant with mother. |
| Ainsworth and Bell 1970 | The Strange Situation |
| A further group of children - Main and Cassidy 1988 | Identified a further group of children, type D. This included inconsistent behaviour, confusion and indecision. Show stereotyped behaviour like rocking. |
| Multiple caregiver paradox - Van Ijzendoorn 1992 | Infants have qualitatively different relationships with different caregivers. The best predictor of later development was an aggregate of all the child's attachments. |
| What are secure attachments result of? - Ainsworth and Bell 1970 | Suggested result of mothers being sensitive to children's needs. |
| Responsive mothers and infants - Isabella 1989 | Mothers and infants who tended to be responsive to each other at one month were more likely to have a secure relationship at 12 months. Supports Ainsworth and Bell 1970. |
| Caregiver sensitivity hypothesis - Ainsworth 1974 | Attachment depends on warm and loving responsiveness of the caregiver. |
| Temperament hypothesis - Kagan 1982 | Some infants are born with a tendency to be more friendly, which means they are more likely to form secure attachments. |
| Behavioural instability - Belsky and Rovine 1987 | Newborns showing signs of behavioural instability were less likely to form secure attachments. Offers a different explanation to caregiver sensitivity hypothesis. |
| Maurer and Maurer 1989 | Attachments are welded in the heat of interactions |
| Four characteristics of attachment - Maccoby 1980 | Seeking proximity, especially when stressed Distress on separation Pleasure when reunited General orientation of behaviour towards primary caregiver |
| Strange situation on Japanese infants - Takahashi 1990 | 68% classified as securely attached, almost same as American one. No infants classified as avoidant-insecure. 32% resistant-insecure. Infant alone step stopped 90% of the time due to infants becoming so distressed. If infants hadn't been so distressed, over 80% would be classified as securely attached. Was carried out on limited sample of middle-class, home reared infants. |
| Inclusion of mental state - Dollard and Miller 1950 | Added the mental state 'drive state' to operant conditioning. Baby uncomfortable when hungry, feels a drive state. Drive state motivates baby to find way to stop discomfort. Baby cries and rewarded with food. Food is primary reinforcer and mother secondary reinforcer. |
| Monkeys - Harlow and Harlow 1962 | Shows attachment not based on food. Two mesh cylinders, one bare and gave milk, other towelled to give comfort. If food |
| Inclusion of mental state - Dollard and Miller 1950 | Added the mental state 'drive state' to operant conditioning. Baby uncomfortable when hungry, feels a drive state. Drive state motivates baby to find way to stop discomfort. Baby cries and rewarded with food. Food is primary reinforcer and mother secondary reinforcer. |
| Four young monkeys - Harlow and Harlow 1962 | Raised on own, first few months huddled together, but gradually developed independence and appeared to suffer no ill effects. This suggests infant-infant bond just as effective as mother-infant bond. |
| Primary attachment in infants - Schaffer and Emerson 1964 | In their study fewer than half of infants had primary attachment to person who fed, bathed and changed infant. |
| John Bowlby 1969 | The evolutionary perspective |
| Goslings imprinting - Konrad Lorenz 1952 | Geese imprint onto first moving object they see. Lorenz demonstrated this with a clutch of eggs divided into two groups, one stayed with the mother goose and one with Lorenz. Lorenz's ones imprinted on him and followed him around. He then placed them back with the other group and the real mother, but his group still followed him. |
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