Flashcards for Changing Family Patterns (4.5)

Question	Answer
Since the 1960s, what has happened to the number of divorces in the UK?	It has significantly increased.
What percentage of marriages now end in termination?	About 40% of marriages.
One reason for the fall in the number of divorces since the 1990s is that fewer people are marrying. What are they choosing to do instead?	Cohabit.
Some couples are more likely than others to divorce. Which couples are at greater risk?	- Those who married young. - Those who have children before marrying. - Those who live together before marriage. - Those where one or both partners have been married before.
Divorce was very difficult to obtain previously, especially for women. One explanation for the increase in divorce is the changes in law. Give examples:	1. The grounds for divorce are now more equal between the genders. 2. The grounds for divorce are now wider. 3. Divorce is cheaper.
In what year were the grounds for divorce equalised, meaning both men and women could file?	1923.
Although divorce is one option, couples can take alternative routes if unhappy. What other options do they have?	- Desertion. - Legal separation. - 'Empty shell marriage'.
However, these options have become less popular in recent years. Why?	Because divorce has become easier to obtain.
Another reason for divorce being more common is the decline in stigma. Which two sociologists note that, since the 1960s, stigma has declined?	Juliet Mitchell and Jack Goody.
A third reason for the increase in divorce is secularisation. Why does this influence the divorce rate?	The church's traditional disapproval of divorce now less influential.
Another explanation for the increase in divorce is the rising expectations of marriage. Which functionalist sociologist pointed this out?	Ronald Fletcher.
What are these higher expectations linked to?	The belief that marriage should be based solely on love. Marriage is no longer seen as a binding contract, but as a relationship in which individuals seek personal fulfilment. This encourages couples to divorce if they don't find said fulfilment.
Despite today's high divorce rates, functionalist sociologists take an optimistic view. What do they point out?	There is a high rate of remarriages, which shows that divorcees lose faith in their particular partner, rather than the institution of marriage.
Feminist sociologists argue that the functionalist view is 'rose-tinted'. According to feminists, what is the main cause of marital conflict and divorce?	The oppression of women within the family.
Although functionalists offer an explanation for the rising divorce rates, what do they fail to do?	Explain why 65% of divorce petitions come from women.
Another reason for the increase in divorce is women's increased financial independence. Why does this have an impact on divorce rates?	Women are less financially dependent on their husband and thus more able to end an unsatisfactory marriage if they so wish.
Although women still generally earn less than men, what laws have helped narrow the pay gap?	Equal pay and anti-discrimination laws.
In addition, what is now available, meaning women no longer have to remain financially dependent on their husbands?	Welfare benefits.
The increase in divorce also has feminist explanations. According to feminists, women now bear a dual burden. What has this created?	A new source of conflict between husbands and wives.
While there have been major improvements in women's position in the public sphere, what do feminists argue about women's position in the private sphere?	The change here has been limited and slow - marriage remains patriarchal.
Which sociologist argues that for many women, the home compares unfavourably with work?	Arlie Russel Hochschild.
Which sociologist argues that working women are more likely to divorce?	Wendy Sigle-Rushton.
Which two sociologists respond to Single-Rushton's claims by arguing that there is no evidence to say that working women are more likely to divorce?	Lynn Cooke and Vanessa Gash.
Finally, one explanation for the increased divorce rate is the individualisation thesis. Which sociologists pioneered this thesis?	Ulrich Beck and Anthony Giddens
The thesis claims that, in modern society, individuals seeking independence and personal fulfilment. Why does this increase divorce rates?	If an individual is not achieving fulfilment in a relationship, they will leave.
How does modern society encourage individualism?	Both partners are now expected to work and are encouraged to pursue their own individual career ambitions.
There have been four important changes in the pattern of marriage in recent years. What are they?	1. Fewer people are marrying. 2. More people are remarrying. 3. People are marrying later. 4. People are less likely to get married in a religious institution.
In 2012, a third of all marriages were remarriages for one or both partners. What can this be referred to as?	'Serial monogamy'.
In addition, people are marrying later in life. What does the average age of a first marriage now stand at?	32 for men and 30 for women.
Finally, couples are less likely to marry in church. In 2012, what proportion of weddings were conducted with religious ceremonies?	30%.
Many reasons for the fall in first marriages are similar to the reasons for the increase in divorce. What are these reasons?	1. Changing attitudes to marriage. 2. Secularisation. 3. Declining stigma attached to alternatives for marriage. 4. Changes in the position of women.
Why is the age at which couples marry rising?	Because people are postponing marriage in order to spend longer in full-time education and to build their career. In addition, couples often now cohabit for a period of time before they choose to marry.
There are two reasons why couples are now less likely to marry in a church. What are they?	1. Secularisation - fewer people see the relevance of religious ceremonies. 2. Many churches refuse to marry divorcees (who make up a growing proportion of those marrying).
What is cohabitation?	Where an unmarried couple in a sexual relationship live together.
While the number of marriages has fallen, the number of couples cohabiting continues to increase. How many cohabiting heterosexual couples are there in Britain?	2.9 million.
How many cohabiting homosexual couples are there in Britain?	69,000.
What proportion of those who cohabit are 'serial cohabiters'?	About 20%.
Why does increased career opportunities for women impact the cohabitation rate?	Because marriage is no longer a way of ensuring financial security - they can rely on their own income to survive.
Although cohabitation increases as marriage decreases, the relationship between the two isn't easily distinct. Which sociologist argues that for most people, cohabitation is a part of the process of getting married?	Robert Chester.
According to Ernestina Coast, how many cohabiting couples say that they expect to marry each other?	75%.
According to Stonewall, what percentage of the adult population now have same-sex relationships?	5 to 7%.
There's evidence of increased social acceptance of same-sex relationships in recent years. What year were male homosexual acts decriminalised for consenting adults aged 21+?	1967.
Which 2004 Act gave homosexual couples similar legal rights to married couples in respect to pension, inheritance, tenancies and property?	The Civil Partnership Act.
Since 2014, homosexual couples have been able to do what?	Marry (as opposed to only being able to enter civil partnerships).
Jeffery Weeks argues that increased social acceptance of same-sex relationships may explain the trend towards what?	Same-sex cohabitation and stable relationships that resemble those found among heterosexuals.
Weeks sees homosexuals as creating families based on which idea?	'Friendship as kinship' - friendships become a type of kinship network or 'chosen family'.
How does Kath Weston describe same-sex cohabitation?	As 'quasi-marriage'.
Other sociologists have noted the effect that legal framework - such as civil partnerships and marriage - has had on homosexual relationships. What do Graham Allan and Graham Crow argue?	The prior absence of legal framework for homosexual couples meant that they had to negotiate their commitment and responsibilities more than married couples. This resulted in homosexual relationships being more flexible but less stable than heterosexual relationships.
Anna Einasdottir notes that while many homosexuals welcome the opportunity to have their partnerships legally recognised, what do others fear?	They worry that the legal recognition may limit the flexibility and negotiability of their relationship. They do not necessarily want to adopt heterosexual norms.
Fewer people today are living in couples. There has been a major rise in the number of people living alone. In 2013, how many households contained just one person?	Almost 30%.
Which group are the most likely to live alone, and why?	Men under the age of 65. This is because following divorce, children are more likely to live with their mother, and the father is more likely to leave the family home.
The decline in the marriage rate and the trend towards marrying later in life means more people are remaining single. It's possible that many single adults are opting for what?	'Creative singlehood' - the deliberate choice to live alone.
However, while many opt for creative singlehood, others are not alone out of choice. Why may they be single?	There are too few partners available in their age group. This is particularly relevant for older widows.
It's often assumed that those not living with a partner are single. However, which two sociologists found that about 10% of adults are 'living apart together'?	Simon Duncan and Miranda Phillips.
Of all adults officially classed as single, what percentage are living apart together?	About 50%.
Public attitudes towards LATs are positive. How many stated that it is their ideal relationship?	20%.
Childbearing rates are also changing. How many children are now born outside of marriage?	Just under half (47%).
Women are also having children later in life. What was the average age to have a first child in 2012?	28 years old.
Reasons for the increase in births outside of marriage include a decline in stigma and an increase in cohabitation. What percentage of 25-34 year olds now think marriage needn't come before parenthood?	72%.
The later age at which women are having children, smaller family sizes and the fact that more children are remaining childless all reflect the fact that women now have what?	More options than just motherhood.
Lone-parent families now make up what percentage of all families with children?	22%.
How many of these lone-parent families are headed by the mother?	Over 90%.
Until the early 1990s, divorced mothers were the biggest group of lone mothers. From then, however, this changed. Who are now the biggest group of lone mothers?	Women who have never been married.
However, a child living with a lone parent is how much more likely than a child living with two parents to be in poverty?	Twice as likely.
Why has the number of lone-parent families risen recently?	Because there has been an increase in divorce and separation, and more unmarried women are having children.
Lone-parent families tend to be female-headed for several reasons. Give examples:	1. Females are assumed to take the expressive role. 2. Divorce courts typically give custody to mothers. 3. Men may be less willing than women to give up work to care for children.
According to Charles Murray, the growth of lone-parent families is a result of what?	An over-generous welfare state providing benefits for unmarried mothers and their children.
What does Murray think the over-generous welfare state has created?	Perverse incentives - it rewards irresponsible behaviour, such as having children without being able to provide for them.
What culture has the welfare state led to?	A dependency culture, where people assume that the state will support them and their children.
What is Murray's solution to this problem?	We should abolish welfare benefits, reducing the dependency culture that encourages premarital births.
However, what do critics of New Right views argue?	Welfare benefits are far from generous and lone-parent families are much more likely to be in poverty.
What reasons are there for lone-parent families being at greater risk of poverty?	1. Most lone parents are women, who typically earn less than men. 2. There are inadequate welfare benefits for lone parents. 3. Many fathers fail to pay maintenance. 4. A lack of affordable childcare prevents lone parents from working.
In Britain, stepfamilies account for what percentage of all families with dependent children?	10%.
Elsa Ferri and Kate Smith found that stepfamilies are very similar to first families in all major respects. However, what are stepfamilies at greater risk of?	Poverty.
Why are stepfamilies at a greater risk of poverty?	Because there are often more children. In addition, the stepfather may also have to support his children, even if they live with their mother.
Why are the children in stepfamilies typically the woman's offspring?	Because children are more likely to remain with their mother following the divorce.
What may cause the tensions faced by stepfamilies?	A lack of clear social norms about how individuals should behave in such families.
Why does Jane Ribbens McCarthy believe we should speak of stepfamilies using the plural?	Because there is no one type of stepfamily.
Immigration into Britain since the 1950s has helped to create greater ethnic diversity. Analysis of the 2011 consensus shows that what percentage of the UK population was white?	86%
Black Caribbeans and Black Africans have a higher proportion of lone-parent households. In 2012, how many Black families with dependent children were lone-parent families?	Just over 50%.
The high rate of female-headed, lone-parent black families has sometimes been seen as evidence of family disorganisation. What can this disorganisation be traced back to?	Slavery.
However, which sociologist argues that the higher rate of lone-parent families among black isn't the result of disorganisation, but actually a reflection of the higher value that black women place on independence?	Heidi Safia Mirza.
Furthermore, Tracey Reynolds argues that the statistics are misleading. Why?	She states that many 'lone' parents are in fact in stable, supportive but non-cohabiting relationships.
Which ethnicity is most likely to live with extended family?	Asians.
What do larger Asian households reflect?	The value placed on the extended family in Asian cultures.
Functionalists believe that the extended family is no longer important important in modern industrial society. What did Nickie Charles find when examining the classic three-generation family living together under one roof?	It is"all but extinct", with the only exception being found among Bangladeshi communities.
However, while the extended family has declined, it hasn't altogether disappeared. What does Peter Willmott argue?	The extended family continues to exist as a 'dispersed extended family', where relatives are geographically separated but maintain frequent contact via visits and phone calls.
Mary Chamberlain suggests that the extended family survives because it performs important functions for its members. Which sociologist found that both working- and middle-class families had emotional bonds and relied on one another for support?	Colin Bell.
Bell's findings suggest the importance of the the 'beanpole' family. Which sociologist came up with this term?	Julia Brannen.
Beanpole families may be partly the results of which two demographic changes?	1. Increased life expectancy. 2. Smaller family sizes.
Despite the rise of the beanpole family, many people still feel a sense of obligation to help their wider extended kin. What did Janet Finch and Jennifer Mason find?	Over 90% of people had given or received financial help, and about 50% had cared for a sick relative.
However, there is some variability in what can be expected of different relatives. What did Finch and Mason find?	More help is expected of females than males.
However, while daughters are more likely to take responsibility for the care of elderly relatives, not all daughters in a family necessarily play an equal part. What did Jennifer Mason find?	Much depends on the history of the relationship, the particular obligations women feel towards their relatives, and what other responsibilities they have that would provide 'legitimate excuses' to not help out.
In addition, Janet Finch and Jennifer Mason found that the principle of reciprocity is also important. What is meant by this?	People felt that help received should be returned to avoid the feeling of indebtedness.

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Flashcards for Changing Family Patterns (4.5)

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