Canada

Question	Answer
Under the 1791 Constitution Act, what was the Canadian political structure?	Image: Canada Political Structure (image/png)
Why did Britain give the Legislative Assemblies tax raising power?	London hoped this would avoid the issues of tax that contributed to the rebellion/American War of Independence. However, they ignored other social issues that were provoking unrest in the Canadas.
What year was the private land company, the Canada Company, given a royal charter to aid colonisation and for the development of the province?	1825.
In Upper Canada, who was the Family Compact?	Men from reputable families, who ran the Executive council from the 1810s-40s. They were traditionalist and devout Anglicans (Church of England). Durham called them a "petty, corrupt, insolent Tory clique."
In Upper Canada, what was the system of land tenure based off of?	British free hold tenure - in which land was owned by the Crown, therefore judged to be free to grant to settlers.
Despite the free hold system, Britain did recognise the Indigenous peoples claim to land, how did they deal with this?	They signed treaties with native groups, exchanging money for their land.
How much land was clergy reserves, and what did this mean?	1/7 of all land was clergy reserves. This meant the profit from the sale or rental of this land went to the Anglican Church.
Britain felt the best way to ensure Canadian loyalty was to set up the Anglican Church, however, the religions in Upper Canada primarily included what?	A majority in Upper Canada were Protestants, as well as Baptists, Congregationalists and, increasingly, Methodists.
Despite the clergy reserves angering the non-Anglican population, why could nothing be done about it.	because the Family Compact were in control, and their loyalty to the Anglican Church meant there would be no reform.
Instead of working with the legislative assembly to rise revenue, what did the government do?	The government side stepped them, denying them the opportunity to influence spending in the province.
Who were the Reformers?	Members of the Upper Canada legislative assembly who wanted greater economic and political control.
How did the government raise the revenue (without the legislative assembly's influence), and why did this anger the Reformers?	By selling land to the Canada Company and using that money to pay for officials. This angered Reformers because they were then unable to influence the lieutenant governor through the traditional means of refusing to vote money to pay salaries.
What was happening during the 1820s-30s?	With the allocation of clergy reserves to the Anglican Church and growing opposition towards the Family Compact, there were calls for a "responsible and cheap government".
Who initiated and popularised the phrase for a "responsible and cheap government"?	Robert Baldwin, the 'father of responsible government' who, in 1836m suggested a constitutional reform to establish a responsible government, whereby the executive is responsible to voters in Canada rather than London.
In Lower Canada, what was the system of land tenure?	The seigneurial system - in which land was granted to a seigneur (a large landowner) who'd grant the land to tenants to farm in exchange for rent.
Why did the seigneurial system contrast unfavourably to the system in Upper Canada of free hold tenure?	Because owning land encouraged investment and land improvement.
What year was the Quebec Act and, in it, what did Britain allow and recognise?	1774, Britain allowed the practice of Catholicism, and recognised the french Civil Law - that, at death, property was divided amongst all of a persons sons, not just the eldest as British law permits.
Who were the Patriotes?	Francophone professionals, for the protection of french identity, supporting reform of the system of political power and inspired by the American Revolution.
What years was Lord Dalhousie governor?	1821-28.
What year did the Lower Canada assembly refuse to vote, and why?	1827, because Dalhousie had prorogued a session of parliament (discontinued it without officially dissolving it) because he refused to accept the patriot leader as speaker of the house.
How many people signed the petition for Dalhousie's removal as governor?	87,000.
To avoid threats of revolt inspired by the revolt in America, what did the Quebec Act (1774) entail?	After the 7 Years' War, it incorporated New France into the British empire, maintaining french laws (Eg the seigneurial system). By giving the legislative assembly tax raising powers, through elections, the population of Lower Canada could influence economics, therefore Britain hoped to avoid the issues of taxation raised in America. Despite this, the executive power belonged to the British-appointed lieutenant governor.
What date did the Canada Committee publish its report, and what was this on?	July 1829, on Canadian issues, largely constitutionally, but the report suggested no mechanism for change.
Why did the British government fail to act on this?	Because the Whig government (1830-) was too focused/concerned with Britain's own reform, demonstrated in the 1832 Great Reform Act, which implemented electoral reform in Britain.
What year did British parliament pass the Howick Act, what was this, and why did they pass it?	1831, it gave gave local assemblies control of revenues from duties on Canadian goods. In exchange, the government hoped assemblies would agree to their Civil List - the amount provided for the payment of government officials.
Who was the leader of the moderate and constitutional reformers, and when did this change?	Robert Baldwin was the leader but, in 1837, when Baldwin was in London, events were led by William Lyon Mackenzie who wanted full independence for Upper Canada and was, arguably, a radical.
What decade was the arrival of Irish immigrants, and why did this provoke tension?	1830s, the Irish immigrants were distrusted, seen as feckless, criminally inclined and diseased.
How were the Irish immigrants assisted?	By the Ops Township Scheme, which provided temporary shelter and cheap supplies to them. Reformers disliked this because of the lack of consultation with the legislative assembly and the Family Company disliked how the immigrants disrupted the status quo.
What years was Sir John Colbourne lieutenant governor of Upper Canada, and what did he do?	1828-32, he bypassed the legislative assembly by using tax revenues to pay officials salaries.
What was Colbourne's most controversial action?	The allocation of the income of clergy reserves to support the 44 Anglican parishes across the province, in an attempt to further establish the Anglican Church.
What years was Sir Francis Head lieutenant governor of Upper Canada, and what did he do?	1835-38, he had no previous experience, and he initially appointed moderate reformers into the executive council, but then removed them if they got in his way.
What did Head do during the 1836 election, and why was this surprising?	He campaigned against the Reformers, which was unusual because campaigning wasn't something that lieutenant governors did.
Head's campaign was successful in removing reformers from the legislative assembly, what did this convince the reformers of?	That they had no legal means to influence the government.
Furthermore, how was the 1836 election a victory for Head, after his campaign?	It resulted in a pro-government majority, and the new legislative assembly passed laws to support their position and prevent reformers for challenging it.
What are some examples of the laws passed to support the position of the new legislative assembly?	A law extending the legislation (King William IV was very ill, and normally an election would be called within 6 months of the monarchs death) however, in this case, there'd be no election. A law preventing members of the legislative assembly from serving in the executive council - this was an obvious attempt by the Family Compact to protect their hold on government as future governors would be prevented from appointing Reformers into the higher executive body - thus proving to the Reformers there was no legal means to challenge the government.
What date did Mackenzie launch a rebellion in Upper Canada, and what did the entail?	December 1837, around 1,000 men gathered on Yonge Street, Toronto, with a general plan to attack the property of members of the Family Compact.
What happened on 5th December 1837?	The men marched south of Yonge Street and exchanged gunfire with loyalists.
What happened on 8th December 1837, and what happened as a result?	The poorly armed and organised rebels fled at the arrival of loyalist reinforcement, Mackenzie and 600 others fled to Navy Island.
With British victory, what did hundreds, or possibly thousands, of rebels and rebel sympathisers do?	They fled to America. Those who stayed were arrested, and 2 were hanged.
In Upper Canada, Irish emigration was blamed for economic strain. What did Britain blame for economic stagnation in Lower Canada?	The seigneurial system.
Because the legislative assembly refused to vote to pay for the British Civil List, what did the British government calculate in the Russell Resolutions and what did this provoke?	That Lower Canada's government owed £142,160 14s 6d (the equivalent of around £11 million today) for the payment of government officials. This provoked economic strain, leading people to seek more radical solutions.
What date did the banks close their doors, worsening their economic strain?	18th May 1837.
What did the political barrier and lack of political representation lead French-Canadians to do?	To support nationalism.
Who was Louis-Joseph Papineau?	A prominent nationalistic figure in Lower Canada, who came from an old seigneurial family and opposed any changes to the seigneurial system. He was a politician who stood for the preservation of french national identity, with a growing anti-British sentiment.
Under Papineau's leadership, what did the legislative assembly do?	Under his leadership, the assembly refused any economic compromises offered by the British government, refused to pay for the British Civil List, and was responsible for the 92 Resolutions.
What date was the 92 Resolutions published by the patriotes, and what did they demand?	February 1834, they demanded constitutional reform, elective councils and the protection of French-Canadian identity. Provided hope for change.
What date was the Russell Resolutions passed by the House of Commons, and what were they?	6th March 1837, they rejected the 92 Resolutions and its proposals for constitutional reforms. It allowed the governor to use public funds without the assemblies consent and calculated that the Lower Canadian government owed the equivalent of £11 million for the unpaid Civil List.
What Russell Resolutions provoke amongst the population of Lower Canada?	Resentment. Patriotes called public meetings and called for the boycott of British goods.
What year was the arrival of the commission of inquiry, who was this led by, and what was its full title?	1835, led by Lord Gosford. Its full title was the Royal Commission for the Investigation of all Grievances Affecting His Majesty's Subjects in Lower Canada.
What did Head disclose to the Upper Canada assembly, and what did this provoke?	The full terms of Gosford's inquiry - that Britain had no intention to implement the constitution reform that the patriotes wanted. This provoked outrage, so the matter was referred to British parliament, resulting in the Russell Resolutions.
What date did 500 or more patriotes form the Société des Fils de la Liberté?	September-October 1837.
What date did a street fight between the Doric Club (militant British and Anglican settlers and loyalist) and members of the Société des Fils de la Liberté? And, what was the name of the pro-Btitish newspaper offices that were destroyed?	6th November 1837, and 'The Vindicators' offices were destroyed.
What date did the British calvary and patriotes militia exchange shots in Montreal?	10th November 1837.
What date did rebel forces ambush a small British military detachment sent to arrest patriot leaders and Gosford issued a warrant for the arrest of patriot leaders, and on the charge of what?	19th November 1837, and on the charge of treason.
What date was the patriot victory at St Denis, and who were they under?	23rd November 1837, under Wolfred Nelson.
What date was the British victory at St Charles, and under who?	25th November 1837, under General Wetheral.
What date did General Wetheral enter Montreal, and with how many prisoners captured from St Charles?	29th November 1837, with 30 prisoners.
What date was the martial law declared in Lower Canada, and what does this mean?	5th December 1837, it meant that the highest ranking military officer was appointed head of government.
What happened 14th December 1837?	100 patriotes fleeing from a burning church in Eustache were shot and the British burnt the houses of known patriotes and those believed to have been sheltering them.
Once order had been restored, how many patriotes were in the jails of Montreal?	Over 500.
What happened on 10th February 1838?	The British government passed an act suspending the 1791 Constitution and empowering Gosford to rule the province with a special council of appointed members.
What happened on 27th April 1838?	Gosford revoked the martial law, judging that the ring leaders had been apprehended and the situation had calmed.
Why did the British judge the situation to be worse in Lower Canada than in Upper Canada?	Because of the prominence of the French-Canadian identity.
What was Lord Durhams real name?	John George Lambton.
What political party was he a member of, and what showed this?	He was a Whig (-originating from Scottish Presbyterian rebels and connoting non-conformity and rebellion) and, therefore, an advocate for reform. This is demonstrated as he was largely responsible for the passing of the Great Reform Act in 1782 and was an advocate for household suffrage in his early career.
What are two of Lord Durham's nicknames?	The 'man who saved the Empire', and 'radical Jack'.
What date did Lord Durham arrive in Canada, after being dispatched at the request of Prime Minister Lord Melbourne (1834-41)?	May 1838.
Why did Melbourne try to intervene with Durham's choice of advisors?	Because they were controversial and provoked tensions. His chosen advisors included Edward Gibbon Wakefield, who'd abducted and married an heiress, for his own financial gain.
How long did Durham hold the role of High Commissioner, as the executive power, stationed in Quebec - a prominent area of Lower Canada?	4 and a half months.
Who did Durham's aides-de-camp meet extensively with, and why?	Canadians, including Robert Baldwin, to compile research for his report.
What did Durham have sent to him for review?	All of the depositions of the rebels.
What was Durham's aims for appointing a Commission of Inquiry on Crown Lands and Emigration?	Aiming to improve the land tenure system in Lower Canada and recommending that land was no longer given freely to emigrants as the arrival of poor emigrants into the province had been a source of tension in both the Canadas.
Arguably, these recommendations came from Wakefield, who theorised what?	'Systematic colonisation', arguing that land should be sold to immigrants at a reasonably high price, rather than given freely or sold cheaply, in order to attract respectable colonists.
Who was Durham's official secretary?	Charles Buller.
What was Buller the author of, and who was he sympathetic towards?	'Responsible government for the colonies', he was sympathetic to French-Canadian rebels.
Lord Brougham criticised Durham and his involvement in the report, saying what?	'Wakefield thought it, Buller wrote and Durham signed it.'
Durham freed most of the political prisoners, however, it was Buller's idea to do what with the most guilty? How did people feel about this?	Banish the most guilty, including Papineau, to Bermuda. Many were happy, believing that the punishment wasn't too harsh.
However, how did Britain respond to the banishment?	In Britain, it was controversial, and the Bill of Indemnity was proposed, by Lord Brougham, against Durham, stating he'd acted illegally by banishing.
Why didn't Melbourne's government defend Durham against the bill?	In order to sustain their position in parliament.
What date did Durham resign, feeling undermined and betrayed?	9th October 1838.
Why did Commander-in-chief John Colbourne assure Durham it was okay to leave?	Because the province was now secure.
Why were the Canadians willing to wait for Durham's report, rather than returning to rebellion?	Because he was an aristocrat (ruling elite) and could, therefore, influence change.
What year was the Report on the Affairs of British North America published?	1839.
Why did the report recommend to unite Lower and Upper Canada?	Because Durham judged the problem in Lower Canada to be a result of the French-Canadians, and so the best immediate solution was to put them in a minority position.
What did the Report recommend regarding the French-Canadian freedoms granted in the 1784 Quebec Act?	All the freedoms, particularly regarding the land tenure system and the civil law, should be rescinded to improve economics and promote economic growth.
How did the Report recommend going about the establishment of a responsible government, as defined by Robert Baldwin?	The legislative assembly would be elected, the party with the majority would hold power and exercise it through a cabinet government, following the Westminster model. Therefore, the governor would only be a titular figure - a figurehead with no executive authority.
What happened on 10th February 1841?	The Act of Union was passed in Montreal.
Between 1848-55, what was granted to all Canadian colonies?	A responsible government.
In the 1850s, where else was a responsible government granted to?	Australia and New Zealand.
So, how did the establishment of responsible government, recommended by Durham's report, arguably saved the empire how?	Because, if responsible governments hadn't been established, the settler colonies might've left the empire.

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