Egypt

Question	Answer
Between 1863-70, Egypt's foreign debt went from £3 million to what?	£100 million.
What was the name of the British and French financial control that was established, and what did it consist of?	'Dual control', they forced the khedive, Ismail Pasha, to introduce financial reforms, including reduced pay for the army and the introduction of sales taxes on food and goods to increase revenue.
The khedive's economic rashness meant that, by what year was Egypt bankrupt?	1876.
British and French interference meant that, on what date did the khedive (Ismail) receive a telegram informing him of his removal, and what was the result of this?	26th June 1879, and it resulted in the emergence of a national figurehead, critical of both Ottoman and Anglo-French interference.
Britain persuaded the sultan of the Ottoman Empire to replace Ismail with who?	His son, Tewfik Pasha, who was more willing to compromise.
Who was Colonel Ahmed Urabi?	AKA Arabi Pasha. He was a nationalist officer in the Egyptian army, who led a group of army officers against Tewfik and British and French interference,
In what year did Arabi Pasha for the Egyptian Nationalist Party, and which groups was this supported by?	1879, it was supported by the army, and it appealed to peasants as he referred to himself as one of the fellahin (a fellah was a ploughman, of peasant class).
In 1879, after an attempt to dismiss how many army officers and halve the salaries of those remaining, what happened?	After the attempt to dismiss 2,500 army officers, Arabi led a coup, forcing Tewfik to appoint a nationalist ministry.
What did Britain and France fear about Arabi's growing voice as a national figurehead?	They feared he'd force Tewfik to refuse loans and ignore the financial measures Dual Control had insisted upon.
What are the different elements the contributed to British interference in 1882?	Strategic, trade, financial, and people.
What year did the Suez Canal open, and how did this impact Britain?	1869, it provided a quicker route to India, drastically shortening the distance and 80% of the shipping that travelled through the Canal was carried on British shipping.
Why was French involvement in the Canal concerning for Britain?	Because the French were the main shareholders, and Britain didn't want them to be too powerful - because, in the event of an Anglo-French war, French influence over the Canal would result in its closure, starving Egypt's water supply and therefore starving British interest and Britain of its primary transportation trading source.
What year did Prime Minister Disraeli purchase shares in the Canal from the khedive? What percentage of shares did he purchase, and how much was this?	1875, he purchased 45% of shares for £4 million.
Who did Disraeli have to borrow from in order to purchase the shares, and what does this highlight?	He had to borrow significantly from the Rothschilds, highlighting the financial element of intervention, as the Rothchilds were very powerful and influential, therefore adding pressure the secure and protect their interest.
What did Disraeli claim involvement in the Canal gave Britain?	He argued it gave them a strategic 'leverage'.
What does Niall Ferguson liken the 'Scramble for Africa' to?	A game of monopoly because, through occupation, Britain consolidated their position and power in Egypt as a means of preventing other powers from gaining the land.
In terms of trading factors, by 1880, what percentage of Egypt's exports was Britain purchasing, and what percentage of Egyptian imports did they supply?	Britain was purchasing 80% of Egypt's exports and supplying 44% of Egypt's imports.
How did the American Civil War, 1861-65, influence trade between Egypt and Britain?	A naval blockade in America prevented cotton from being exported to Britain, so Britain imported Egyptian cotton instead. After the war, Britain reverted to American cotton which worsened Egyptian economic difficulties.
In terms of financial reasoning for interference, why were bond-holders in the City of London a reason?	British bond-holders in the City of London were heavily exposed to any Egyptian failure to pay its debts. Britain and France had established 'Dual control' in response to the khedive's bankruptcy and the City of London demanded that Egypt should continue to pay its debts to bond-holders.
What percentage of his personal fortune had Gladstone invested in Egyptian loans?	Up to 37%.
What, in terms of people, may have provoked British intervention?	A British and French expedition fleet arrived in Alexandria - a city of 232,000, where every 5th person was European. The expedition was provoked by, on 11th June 1882, a row between an Egyptian donkey boy and a Maltese man escalated into anti-Christian riots. At least 50 Europeans were killed and perhaps 250 Egyptians.
What year did Britain and France issue the Gambetta Note, and what was this?	In 1882, in response to tension. The Gambetta Note stated that they felt the maintenance of the khedives power was the best guarantee for prosperity, and warning the nationalists under Arabi that the powers would intervene militarily if the khedive was threatened.
When the nationalists forced a nationalist cabinet and threatened to depose the khedive, how did Britain and France respond?	Britain and France feared Arabi would refuse to accept debt payments and so, determined to protect bond-holders, sent warships to Alexandria (where Arabi had seized power) on 20th May 1882 to threaten nationalists and restore the authority of the khedive.
What date was the bombardment of Alexandria, and who didn't assist?	11th July 1882, French warships didn't assist or offer support to British military on ground.
What did Germany have to do with the reasons for French change in policy and withdrawal?	The German chancellor, Bismarck, was no longer willing to support dual control by the French. France was't in a position to argue after being defeated by them in 1870 and was forced to surrender its territory to the powerful military state Bismarck was creating.
What showed France that Germany was opposed to French and British intervention without Bismarck's consent?	Bismarck and other the Great Powers -Russia, Italy and Austria - issued a note to the sultan stating that there should be no changes in Egypt without the Great Powers consent.
French internal politics also meant they were less inclined to intervene- on 30th January 1882, Leon Campbell fell from power, who was he replaced by?	Charles de Freycinet, who was less inclined to intervene - a stance supported by French parliament, who feared Germany.
How did Arabi respond to the anti-Chritisan riot that broke out in Alexandria on 11th June 1882?	He put down the riot and fortified the city against Anglo-French expedition.
What date is Arabi defeated in Tel-el-Kebir by Britain, and what are the results of this?	12th September 1882, resulting in 57 of British forces dead and 2,000 Egyptian casualties.
What happened on 3rd December 1882?	Arabi was arrested and exiled to Ceylon, and Britain restore khedive Tewfik, who acted as a national figurehead while Britain exercised the real authority.
What year did Sir Evelyn Baring return to Egypt as consul general?	1883.
What are 3 different interpretations of the occupation?	Robinson and Gallagher's book looks towards the importance of the Suez Canal, Cain and Hopkins placed the importance in the bond-holders, capital investment from the City of London and Gladstone's personal financial holdings, and national historians of Egypt, Eg Al Sayyid Marsot, looked towards social and economic tensions due to the modernisation of the khedives and the birth of a distinctive national voice.
Between what years was the veiled protectorate, and what does this mean?	1882-1914, Egypt was still technically a province of the Ottoman Empire, while the khedive's British advisors, who effectively ran the country, held no legal authority.
The occupation was meant to be temporary, and between 1882-1914 the British government announced their intention of withdrawing on how many occasions?	On 66 separate occasions.
What years was Sir Evelyn Baring the British consul general?	1883-1907.
Why was Sir Evelyn Baring key in the continuation of the occupation?	Because he believed there needed to be fundamental changes in agricultural infrastructure and government institutions.
The emergence of radical convinced Baring of what?	That it would be dangerous to withdraw.
In 1873, who did khedive Ismail appoint as the governor general of the Sudan and why did London support this?	General Charles Gordon, London supported it as he had to put down revolts against the khedive and had taken action to suppress the slave trade. He resigned and returned to England when Ismail was deposed.
What year saw the emergence of the radical jihadist, the Madhi, and what was his intentions?	1881, he was intent on driving out Egyptian-Ottoman overlords and establishing a purer form of Islam.
In November 1883, how many do Mahdist forces kill at Kashgil?	They wiped out all but 300 of the 7,000 troops under Sir Willian Hicks command.
What did this provoke Britain to realise?	That Egypt no longer held control over the Sudan.
Despite the Sudan being of little interest to Britain, why did they get involved?	London had no intention of allowing similar forces to take control of Alexandria and Cairo.
What did Gladstone's commitment to Home Rule in Ireland result in?	The splitting of the Liberal party and the dominance of the Conservatives for most of the century.
What was notable about the Conservative leader, Lord Salisbury, and how many years was he Prime Minister for?	He was Conservative Prime Minister for a total of 13 years, and was too clever and subtle to be carried away by imperialist rhetoric and jingoism.
What date was the Consantinpole Convention, and what was reached?	22nd May 1887, an agreement was reached for Britain to withdraw in Egypt, and the French and Russians threatened the sultan with invasion of Syria if Britain were granted on-going right for re-entry.
What did French and Russia threats allow Salisbury to conclude?	That the French were the greatest threat to the British Empire, and thus decided that Britain's strategic interests were guaranteed by maintaining a presence in Egypt.
As a result of financial control and cuts in public spending, what did Baring's reforms achieve?	Baring restores the Egyptian government to solvency (the ability to pay its debts) by 1887. This had been an objective of the 1882 occupation.
In 1885, the London Convention agreed to loan how much to Egypt, and what was this money spend on?	Agreed to load £9 million to Egypt and £8 million was spent on stabilising debt, and Baring spent £1 million of the loan on irrigation and draining the silted drainage canals of the Niles flood plains to improve agriculture.
What was the main weakness of Baring's reforms?	Baring's annual budget was largely allocated to debt repayments, the army (to protect the population against the mahdi) and irrigation. Other spending was limited.
In 1884, what did a land taxation survey show?	Tax paid on kharaj land (land held by peasant farmers) was £1 6s 4d per fedden, contrasting to tax paid on ushr land (held by large landowners) which was 10s 7d.
Regarding land taxation, what did British land and tax officials argue?	They argued tax should be equalised to prevent rebellion and promote agricultural investment by peasant farmers, thus improving the output.
How did Baring respond to this?	Because he was constrained by budgetary demands and was cautious of upsetting large landowners. he put off taxation reform until there was a full land tax survey in the 20th century.
Why was there limited education investment?	Because Baring believed increased secondary education wasn't the responsibility of the government, refusing to fund it, thus limiting the upwards mobility of fellahin (peasants).
Regarding education, what did Baring do in 1901, and why?	In 1901 he raised tuition fees for primary schools to decrease enrolement, believing progress too quickly would destabilise society.
What was Baring's greatest weakness?	He underestimated the strength of nationalism and didn't notice it's growth amongst the fellahin. He believed his resort had bought gratitude for Britian, forgetting the limitations of the fellahin - restrictions on education and delayed tax reform.
What year did Baring leave Egypt?	1907.
In 1873, as part of his modernisation programme, khedive Ismail appointed British General Gordon as what, and why?	As governor of the Equatorial Provinces of Sudan, to end the slave trade, which was deeply embedded in Sudanese society.
Gordon made significant progress on stopping the slave trade, but what effect did it have?	It was destabilising the economy and control on society through traditional groups (as slave traders were generally powerful members of society).
What year did Gordon resign?	1880.
What was another factor for destabilisation?	The rise of militant Islam.
What year did Muhammad Ahmed proclaim himself the mahdi, and who was this?	1881, the mahdi was the prophesied redeemer of the Islamic world. He capitalised Sudanese resentment about Egyptian taxes and authority.
How did Gordon's attack on slave traders impact this?	It left an important gap in traditional society, removing the only leader who might've provided effective oppositions to mahdist forces.
The Egyptian army launched a number of offensives against the mahdi which were unsuccessful, and culminated in what?	The wiping out of the 1883 expedition, led by Sir William Hicks, at Kashgil. Hick was leading Egyptian forces of 7,000 infantry, and 1,000 cavalry, and all but 300 were killed by mahdist forces.
Why did Gladstone see no reason for British involvement in the Sudan's problems?	Because, although they didn't like mahdist ideas, they were prepared to cut the Sudan loose in the interest of maintaining stability and control in Egypt. Britain had no interest there, as the Sudan was largely desert and its main economic basis was the slave trade, which Britain was committed to stamping out.
In 1884, General Gordon was dispatched to the Sudan to do what?	They'd concluded that the evacuation of Egyptian garrisons in the Sudan (which were often under English command) was necessary. So Gordon was dispatched there to organise its evacuation.
Instead of concentrating on withdrawing the garrison from Khartoum, what did Gordon do?	He spend his early time, in the city, wiring plans to London for the handing over of authority to an anti-mahdist public figure and sending messages to Gladstone asking for more troops.
When the mahdi drew close, instead of withdrawing by river, Gordon refused to do so - why?	He refused to withdraw because there was still people to be evacuated from outlying areas.
What date did the mahdi break through the fortifications at Khartoum, and what happened as a result?	26th January 1885, the entire garrison was killed and Gordon's decapitated head was presented to the mahdi as a prize.
What happened after the events at Khartoum?	The relief expedition, reluctantly sent by Gladstone, arrived 2 days too late. And, on 5th February 1885, when the news reached London, the public blamed Gladstone and he was nicknamed MOG (Murderer of Gordon).
What was the result of the Battle of Adowa, 1896?	Italy was defeated by mahdist forces, convincing Salisbury that the time was right to show force against the jihadists and reassert European superiority.
In 1890, what did Britain declare the Nile Valley was?	It declared the Nile Valley its "sphere of influence".
In 1894, Edward Grey, the under-secretary of state for foreign affairs, told Commons what?	That French interference in the Nile Valley would be interpreted by Britain as an unfriendly act.
As the Scramble for Africa continued, what did Salisbury realise?	Britain needed a more visible presence in Sudan to thwart French expansion.
What was the French's ambition?	It was to link its Western colonies with its port in Djibouti on the Horn of Africa.
What was British interests?	In South Africa and British East Africa.
In 1898, 2 armed forces met, where?	At Fashoda, almost exactly where British and French interests intersected.
What happened at Fashoda?	A French force of about 120 men under Major Marchand reached Fashoda after a 14 month journey. They were waiting, in vain, for another French expedition when, on 18th September 1898, General Kitchener's force of 1,500, accompanied by 5 gunboats and fresh fro their victory at Omdurman, arrived.
What had Kitchener been instructed by Salisbury to do?	To establish British claim over the Nile to repudiate any rival claims.
What happened, and what was the results?	Kitchener's tact to allow the French flag to remain flying, the overwhelming British force, Marchand's restraint and the general French relief that they were fighting Britain rather than mahouts forces resulted in both sides agreeing to refer the matter back to London and Paris and, instead, have a party.
What date did the French withdraw their claim to Fashoda, and why did they do that?	3rd November 1898. The French government were aware of British naval supremacy and was facing the internal crisis of the Dreyfus Affair (Captain Dreyfus was accused to treason and leaking military secrets).
General Horatio Herbert Kitchener's campaigns in Sudan were what?	Methodical and equipped with the most modern weapons.
What was the initial objective for Kitchener, and why did this change?	The initial objective was Dongola, but with positive reports of the expedition and the wiping out of the mahdist garrison at Ferkeh in 1896, Salisbury was happy to expand the objective to take the whole of Sudan.
When Khartoum was retaken, how did Kitchener's actions demonstrate his deep hatred for the mahdi and respect for Gordon?	A memorial service was held for Gordon, the mahdi's tomb was ordered to be opened so it didn't become a place of pilgrimage and the mahdi's head was decapitated. Baring intervened to ensure the head was buried and treated with decency.
The destruction of the mahdi was what?	It was a desirable long-term goal for Salisbury, but he'd accepted it might not be achieved in his lifetime.
What date was the Battle of Omdurman?	2nd September 1898.
How was the objective achieved in the Battle of Omdurman?	By Kitchener's careful advance and the British advantage of the new weapon, the Maxim gun, which was the first fully automated machine gun.
What were the results of the Battle of Omdurman?	An estimated 10,000 of the mahdist forces were dead, 13,000 were taken prisoner and 5,000 were wounded. 47 of the British forces were dead, and 382 were wounded.
How did Young Winston Churchill respond?	He wrote his account in his controversial book, 'The River War', 1899, in which he reported of the atrocities committed against the mahdist wounded and criticised Kitchener for not reissuing the order issued before the Battle of Atbara which stated wounded soldiers should be spared.

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