Medical Ethics

Medical Ethics

1. Abortion

   • An abortion is the deliberate early removal of the foetus from the womb. If the foetus is expelled early from the womb due to natural causes, it is called a miscarriage.
   • The Abortion Act 1967 states the possible reasons for an abortion are: The mother’s life is at risk. The mother’s physical or mental health is at risk. The physical or mental health of any existing children is at risk. The child may have a serious mental or physical disability if born.
   • Reasons
     • The mother will die because of the pregnancy
     • The mother will be physically or mentally injured because of the pregnancy.
     • The child will be physically or mentally disabled.
     • The mother’s existing children will be mentally or physically harmed by having another child.
     • The pregnancy is the result of rape.
     • The mother is very young.
     • The mother became pregnant by accident.
     • The mother’s circumstances have changed – her relationship with the father may have ended or she may have lost her job.
     • The parent(s) cannot support the child financially or emotionally.
   • Pro-life
     • Every child is a gift to be loved and cherished. It’s unthinkable for anyone to destroy that gift. Abortion is murder. Everyone needs and has the right to special protection, especially the most vulnerable. A foetus is a human being from the moment it is conceived and has the right to live.
   • Pro-choice
     • Every woman has the right to do as she wishes with her body. Every baby has the right to be born into a family that can meet its basic needs. Not everyone can look after a disabled baby. The rights of other family members must be respected. A woman who becomes pregnant after rape should never be forced to have the rapist’s baby.
   • Christian Views
     • "Naked I came from my mother’s womb and naked I shall depart. The Lord gave and the Lord has taken away; may the name of the Lord be praised." Job [1:21] Interpretation - Only God can influence life.
       • "For you created my inmost being; you knit me together in my mother's womb." Psalm [139:13] Interpretation - Life is sacred and a gift from God.
     • Some Christians support the Pro-Life cause, because they believe abortion treats human life too cheaply. Other Christians sympathise with the Pro-Choice argument, because they question whether it is right to value the life of an unborn child over the life of the mother.
     • Roman Catholic Views
       • Early Roman Catholic viewpoints In the early years of Christianity, abortion and infanticide were common. The teachings discussed here are some of the early teachings of the Catholic Church. Thomas Aquinas (1225 – 1274), a Roman Catholic priest, argued that the male foetus was given a soul at 40 days and the female foetus at 80 days. This was known as 'ensoulment'. Abortions after ensoulment and infanticide were unacceptable for Christians.
       • The Catholic Church is the only church to state that abortion is never allowed, even if the pregnancy is the result of rape. This is because Catholics believe that a foetus is a person from conception and abortion is murder. They believe that all life is sacred, to be loved unconditionally, and God has a plan for each foetus. Some refer to the Didache when opposing abortion, which states: ‘You shall not kill by abortion the fruit of thy womb’. The only time an ‘abortion’ is permitted is when there is a ‘double-effect’ – when an essential operation to the mother requires a pregnancy to be terminated.
     • Other Christian Views
       • Agape is the belief that Christians should love God and all others unconditionally. The Golden Rule teaches Christians to: ‘do to others as you would have them do to you’. Some Christians use agape and the Golden Rule to define their attitude to abortion. They imagine what they would do in that situation and respect others’ decisions. Some feel that abortion is sometimes the kindest and most loving solution, as it prevents further suffering for mother and child.
       • There is no united Quaker view on abortion. On the one hand, abortion goes against the Quaker principle of non-violence and pacifism. On the other hand, abortion is justified by the Quaker view that women should play a full part in society. Like the Church of England, the Quakers stress that any decision made on abortion is a matter of individual conscience. They question whether it’s right to value the child’s life over the mother’s life.
       • The Church of England and other Protestants believe that abortion should be avoided. But they accept that abortion may be the best option when: There is a risk to the mental or physical health of the mother. A baby will be born with a disability. The pregnancy is the result of the woman being raped. In 1993, the Church of England said that the number of abortions since the 1967 Abortion Act was ‘unacceptably high’. But they still leave it up to individual consciences to judge whether abortion is right.

2. Fertility Treatment

   • Types
     • Fertility medicines are usually given to women. They can help with ovulation problems and may help a woman get pregnant naturally (through sexual intercourse).
     • Men and women can have surgery to assist their fertility. Any scarring or blockages, preventing them from getting pregnant naturally, will be removed.
     • Assisted conception Assisted conception replaces the need for sexual intercourse and may involve a donor. Types of assisted conception include IVF, AID, AIH and surrogacy.
   • The Christian Viewpoint
     • The Bible was written long before such fertility treatments were available. It does not refer to the use of modern drugs and treatments to aid fertility but it does say that it’s up to God if a woman has a child. Helping a couple to have a child using fertility treatment may be seen as going against God’s will. However, denying a couple a child may be seen as an unloving act.
     • Most Churches say that fertility treatment is acceptable, as long as the husband’s sperm and wife’s eggs are used to create the embryo. Catholics oppose assisted conception, as it replaces the need for marital intercourse and may require egg/sperm donation or surrogates. They accept fertility medicines, surgical procedures and AIH (when husband’s sperm is collected from intercourse).
     • Most Churches accept fertility treatment as they believe that: Giving fertility treatment is a loving act – agape. Giving treatment follows the example of Jesus as a healer. God gave people the ability to devise fertility treatments and they should be used. Creativity is part of what it means to be in the image of God. Anything aiding the creation of human life for a loving couple is a good thing.
     • Catholics and Evangelical Christians oppose assisted conception as they believe that: A child is a gift from God and infertility is God’s will. Assisted conception removes the need for marital intercourse. A man needs to masturbate as part of assisted conception – masturbation is sinful. God meant there to be only two people in a relationship. A donor or a surrogate introduces a third person – this is mechanical adultery. Some Protestants share this view.
       • Many Christians oppose surrogacy. However, while Catholics and others see surrogacy as mechanical adultery, Protestants and other denominations are mostly concerned with the social and psychological problems for those involved in this process.
   • IVF and Embryos
     • The Roman Catholic Church opposes IVF for the same reasons as they oppose abortion. They believe that the embryo is a living human being from the moment of conception, with the right to life. They see the destruction or use of embryos in medical research as murder, breaking the sixth commandment not to kill. Some Protestants agree with this viewpoint.
     • THE 14 DAY RULE - Many Protestants believe that embryos are not human in the early stages of development. Embryonic research is therefore acceptable for Protestants if it happens before 14 days (when the nervous system begins to form). Protestants say that this research is only acceptable when there is no other alternative and only when it is used for therapeutic purposes (for the treatment of diseases).
   • Cloning
     • Reproductive cloning involves creating an embryo and placing it into a human or animal mother’s womb to create a ‘clone’. This has been achieved with animals, Dolly the Sheep for example, but never with humans.
     • Therapeutic cloning involves creating embryos to extract stem cells from them which can then be used in research to develop treatments for diseases and even grow organs.
     • Medical Arguments For
       • Therapeutic cloning can help treat serious diseases. If developed further, therapeutic cloning could be used to grow organs. This could reduce waiting lists and boost survival rates. Cloned cells could get rid of the need for animals in experiments. Reproductive cloning could help infertile couples have babies. Cloned cells could be used to develop a cure for cancer. Allowing therapeutic cloning of cells, or even cloning of animals, does not have to lead to the reproductive cloning of people.
     • Christian Arguments Against
       • Life can only be created by God – cloning is man playing God and goes against the sanctity of life. Catholics believe that an embryo is human from conception – so destroying the spare embryos from cloning is murder. A child is a gift from God – cloning makes commodities out of children and organs. God meant for each child to have two parents – cloning requires there to be only one parent. Animal or therapeutic cloning could lead to reproductive human cloning. There are alternative means of harvesting stem cells – such as from adult bone marrow.

3. Euthanasia and Suicide

   • Suicide
     • Assisted Suicide
       • Assisted suicide is when it is the person who dies who takes the final action to end their life, but this action relies on the help or assistance of another person. Someone who obtains and gives a person the drugs they need to commit suicide, is assisting that person’s suicide. It is illegal in the UK.
     • A suicide is when someone deliberately tries to take their own life. It is legal in the UK
     • Christian Views
       • In the past, suicide was seen as a sin and a crime by Christians. It was a sin because it meant people were rejecting the gift of life given to them by God. The Roman Catholic Church believed someone who committed suicide would not be allowed into heaven. People who committed suicide could not have a Church funeral or be buried in holy grounds.
       • Today, Christians recognise that people commit suicide as a result of unhappiness and that these people do not want to be sinful. Christians try to help depressed and unhappy people so that they do not become suicidal. But they do continue to oppose assisted suicide. Many Christians volunteer for organisations such as the Samaritans to try to prevent people from committing suicide. The Samaritans offer counselling services to unhappy people.
       • While Christians may be opposed to euthanasia, this does not mean they want people to suffer. Christians want to help people die peacefully and with dignity. They do this by establishing hospices. These are institutions that provide care to bring comfort to a dying patient. This is called palliative care. The support offered by a hospice includes medical treatment, as well as social and emotional assistance. The aim is to provide as painless and peaceful a death as possible.
   • Euthanasia
     • Active
       • Euthanasia is the act of helping someone else to die more quickly than they would die naturally. Active euthanasia is when a person is helped to die by someone else giving them a lethal dose of drugs. This type of euthanasia is ‘active’ because a positive action has to be taken to end the other person’s life. It is illegal in the UK.
     • Passive
       • In cases of passive euthanasia, nothing is done to make the other person’s death come quicker, but treatment may be withheld that would otherwise prolong the patient’s life. Passive euthanasia could include withholding drugs or operations, switching off a life-support machine, or not giving a patient resuscitation. It is legal in the UK.
     • Christian Views
       • The Roman Catholic Church opposes all forms of euthanasia, from giving someone an overdose to turning off a life-support machine. They teach that any action intending to cause death is a ‘grave violation of the law of God’. The Catholic church applies the double effect principle - euthanasia is only permissible if it is a side effect of actual treatment. For example, a terminally ill patient may be given powerful painkillers, which also quicken the patient dying. This is acceptable because the intention of the drug is to ease pain rather than end life.
       • The Church of England is opposed to euthanasia because they teach that all life is sacred and holy. However, in situations where a patient has no quality of life or is in intolerable pain, they believe that they do not need to be kept alive at all costs by machines and treatments.
       • Both the Baptist and Methodist Churches agree that euthanasia revolves around the question of who has the right to take a human life. They see euthanasia as unnecessary if the elderly are provided with the right care and support. However, they also teach that there is no duty to keep anyone alive who is brain-dead.
       • Some Christians oppose all forms of euthanasia, others differentiate between active and passive euthanasia. Killing another person by an active euthanasia is wrong. But allowing someone to die by passive euthanasia is acceptable for some Christians. Many believe that life does not have to be preserved at all costs.

4. Animal Rights

   • Medical Research
     • Animals are used in experimental studies to research how to prevent disease, find cures, test drugs and replace human organs. This work has helped to ease the suffering of millions of people. Research involving animals has resulted in:
       • Polio vaccines, The discovery of vitamins, Asthma drugs, Ways to help premature babies survive, An understanding of how embryos develop, Treatment for diabetes, Treatments for serious illnesses, Development of anaesthetics
   • Activists
     • Animal rights organisations and activists want to make sure animals are free from cruelty. This includes protecting animals from vivisection. Animal rights activists say that animal testing is cruel. They say animals have as much of a right to life as humans and that other ways need to be found to test drugs and procedures.
   • Christian Views
     • For
       • A key Christian belief is that humans are God’s most important creation and all other animals were created for humans to rule over. Man has the right to use animals to further medical understanding.
       • Animals do not have souls. People are thought to have souls, but animals are not. Only people can have a special relationship with God. This is shown by the fact that God gave man the ‘breath of life’ in the story of creation, but not animals.
       • The Roman Catholic Church says that people should not pamper animals while humans suffer. Human life should be put first. So, dressing dogs in designer clothing while people are starving is wrong.
       • Most Christians agree that it is necessary to use animals in medical research. The Catholic Church teaches that experiments on animals are tolerable, as long as they are reasonable and the intention is to improve or save human lives. The Church of England agrees with this teaching.
     • Against
       • Christians believe God gave man control over animals, but they also believe that this control should be exercised carefully. Being cruel to animals is a misuse of the responsibilities God gave to humanity.
       • There is far less tolerance of using animals in research not aimed at medical advances. For example, the Quakers oppose the use of animals in research for cosmetics – this view is shared by Christians in most denominations.
       • Animals are part of God’s creation so they should be respected and treated in a decent way. God has a covenant with humans and animals. Wronging animals is seen by some as wronging God.
       • Most Christians believe that, in God’s ideal world, humans and animals live in harmony. This is seen in the Garden of Eden and in the prophet Isaiah’s description of Heaven as a place where animals and humans live together in peace (Isaiah 11.6-8).