5: How do cultures differ?

Personal relationships
1. Dimensions of cultural variability: individualism & collectivism
  1. INDIVIDUALISC CULTURES: many ingroups > specific influence
    1. self- disclosure (direct communicatin style)
  2. COLLECTIVISTIC CULTURES: only few ingroups > they influence individuals behaviour a lot
  3. individual behavior contains both individualistic and collevistic values
  4. The self mediates the influence of individualism- collectivism on communication behaviour:
    1. 1. PERSONALITY: allocentrism - idiocentrism
      1. Allo: attention is focused on other people
      2. Idiocentric: focus on self/ correlates with loneliness
    2. 2. VALUES > maintain & enhance self -esteem. Values can be individualistic, collectivistic or mixed
    3. 3. SELF- CONSTRUALS: Members of cultures can see themselves in other ways
      1. Independent VS. Interdependent
      2. Everyone has both construals, even though one is mostly active (depends on context)
  5. HIGH- CONTEXT COMMUNICATION: information is internalized in the person and little is in the explicit part of the message (talk around the point)
    1. SILENCE: communicative act
  6. LOW- CONTEXT COMMUNICATION: most information is vested in the explicit code (more direct; use words certainly and absolutely; usually members of individualistic cultures
    1. (1) QUALITY MAXIM: truth & evidence
    2. (2) RELEVANCY MAXIM: fits the context
    3. (3) MANENR MAXIM: clear expression & clarity
    4. communicate personal things > are more sincere
    5. SILENCE is seen as a violation
2. Uncertainty avoidance
  1. HIGH: > higher anxiety, formal rules & value truth & coherence
  2. LOW: > lower stress & accept risks more
3. Power distance:
  1. High
    1. -Accept power as part of society. -Do not question superior's orders. -Outgroup members = outsiders > less power. -Less cooperation with outgroup members. -Low level of egalitarianism
  2. Low
    1. - Power should be used legitimately. -High level of egalitarianism
  3. Extent less powerful individuals/ organizations accept that power is distributed unequally
4. Masculinity- femininity
  1. High masculinity: value power & assertiveness, have strong motivation to achieve well. See jobs central to life & value advancement. See same- sex relationships as more intimate.
  2. Low in both: undifferentiated sex role
  3. High in both: androgynous sex role
Emotion display
1. NEUROCULTURAL THEORY OF EMOTION
  1. Innate system which stores universal emotions and the cultural display rules
2. Individualistic - collectivistic culture
  1. Ingroup- outgroup theory:
    1. People of COLLECTIVISTIC cultures: positive emotions to ingroup & more negative emotions to the outgroup
    2. INDIVIDUALISTIC cultures: negative emotions to the ingroup & more positive emotions to members of the outgroup
3. Power distance
  1. High PD: Display more positive emotions to others of higher status and more negative emotions to others of lower status
    1. maintains status in relation to others
  2. Low PD: Display more negative emotions to others of higher status and more positive emotions to others of lower status
Emotion display in male- male interactions
1. Appropriateness depends on 3 factors:
  1. Relation type (family/ friend)
  2. Emotion intensity of the context (highly charged: weddigns/ funerals)
  3. Privacy level of the context: public/ private
2. Risk of affection: People might interpret affection as something else, especially in male-male relationships
3. Experiment hypothesis & result: Affection between men was considered to be more appropriate among brothers than among male friends, in emotionally charged situations more than in emotionally neutral situations, and in public contexts more than in private contexts
The self and health persuasion
1. Health messages are more persuasive if: the message content matches the recipient's AFFECTIVE, COGNITIVE or MOTIVATIONAL CHARACTERISTICS. < culture influences these
2. Cultural consideration of the self: How people see themselves in relation to other people and their goals
  1. > creates more effective health messages
3. Individualistic: Dominant form iof the self is independent (agents)
4. Collectivistic: dominant form of self is interdependent
5. THE REGULATORY FOCUS THEORY
  1. Individuals from collectivistic cultures are more focused on PREVENTION and sensitive to the presence or absence of NEGATIVE OUTCOMES
    1. Are persuaded better with LOSS- FRAMED MESSAGES (avoidance behaviour)
  2. INDIVIDUALISTIC CULTURES: focus more on PROMOTION and are sensitive to the presence or absence of POSITIVE OUTCOMES
    1. Are presuaded better with GAIN FRAMED MESSAGES (approach behaviour)
    2. independent self > personal goals & consequences;
      1. But also: INCREASED PERSONAL RELEVANCE CAN LEAD TO GREATER DEFENSIVE PROCESSES!
  3. < THE CULTURAL CONGRUECNY HYPOTHESIS: >
    1. Must match the health message to the orientation of the target culture
6. SELF- AFFIRMATION THEORY
  1. Goal of the self-system is to maintain an image of self-integrity rather than responding to specific threats
    1. When self-affirmation is provided, a defensive response might be reduced
  2. Useful framework for understanding when psychological constructs will be effective or ineffective in attempts of health persuasion

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	Created by Johanna Pyykkö over 8 years ago