Renaissance

Annotations:

• Renaissance is a period in Europe from the 14th century to 17th century, considered the bridge between the Middle Ages and modern history. It started as a cultural movement in Italy in the Late Medieval period and later spread to the rest of Europe, marking the beginning of the Early Modern Age.

1. Ancient Greece and Rome

   Annotations:

   • Ancient Greece was a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC[citation needed] to the end of antiquity (c. 600 AD). Immediately following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and theByzantine era.ncluded in ancient Greece is the period of Classical Greece, which flourished during the 5th to 4th centuries BC. Classical Greece began with the repelling of a Persian invasion by Athenian leadership. Because of conquests by Alexander the Great of Macedonia,Hellenistic civilization flourished from Central Asia to the western end of the Mediterranean Sea. Classical Greek culture, especially philosophy, had a powerful influence on the Roman Empire, which carried a version of it to many parts of the Mediterranean Basin and Europe. For this reason Classical Greece is generally considered to be the seminal culture which provided the foundation of modern Western culture and is considered as the cradle of Western civilization.
   • Ancient Rome was an Italic civilization that began on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 8th century BC. Located along the Mediterranean Seaand centered on the city of Rome, it expanded to become one of the largest empires in the ancient world with an estimated 50 to 90 million inhabitants (roughly 20% of the world's population) and covering 6.5 million square kilometers (2.5 million sq mi) during its height between the first and second centuries AD. In its approximately 12 centuries of existence, Roman civilization shifted from a monarchy to a classical republic and then to an increasinglyautocratic empire. Through conquest and assimilation, it came to dominate Southern and Western Europe, Asia Minor, North Africa, and parts ofNorthern and Eastern Europe. Rome was preponderant throughout the Mediterranean region and was one of the most powerful entities of the ancient world. It is often grouped into classical antiquity together with ancient Greece, and their similar cultures and societies are known as theGreco-Roman world. Ancient Roman society has contributed to modern government, law, politics, engineering, art, literature, architecture, technology, warfare, religion, language and society. A highly developed civilization, Rome professionalized and expanded its military and created a system of government called res publica, the inspiration for modern republics such as the United States and France. It achieved impressivetechnological and architectural feats, such as the construction of an extensive system of aqueducts and roads, as well as the construction of large monuments, palaces, and public facilities. By the end of the Republic, Rome had conquered the lands around the Mediterranean and beyond: its domain extended from the Atlantic toArabia and from the mouth of the Rhine to North Africa. The Roman Empire emerged under the leadership of Augustus Caesar. 721 years ofRoman-Persian Wars started in 92 BC with their first war against Parthia. It would become the longest conflict in human history, and have major lasting effects and consequences for both empires. Under Trajan, the Empire reached its territorial peak. Republican mores and traditions started to decline during the imperial period, with civil wars becoming a common ritual for a new emperor's rise.Splinter states, such as thePalmyrene Empire, would temporarily divide the Empire in the crisis of the 3rd century. Plagued by internal instability and attacked by various migrating peoples, the western part of the empire broke up into independent kingdoms in the 5th century. This splintering is a landmark historians use to divide the ancient period of universal history from the pre-medieval "Dark Ages" of Europe.
   • Ancient Greece and Rome is what Renaissance learn from. It's the source the Renaissance and is one of the most important parts of Renaissance
2. Architecture

   Annotations:

   • Renaissance architecture is the architecture of the period between the early 15th and early 17th centuries in different regions of Europe, demonstrating a conscious revival and development of certain elements of ancient Greek and Roman thought and material culture. Stylistically, Renaissance architecture followed Gothic architecture and was succeeded by Baroque architecture. Developed first in Florence, with Filippo Brunelleschi as one of its innovators, the Renaissance style quickly spread to other Italian cities. The style was carried to France, Germany, England, Russia and other parts of Europe at different dates and with varying degrees of impact. Renaissance style places emphasis on symmetry, proportion, geometry and the regularity of parts as they are demonstrated in the architecture ofclassical antiquity and in particular ancient Roman architecture, of which many examples remained. Orderly arrangements of columns, pilasters andlintels, as well as the use of semicircular arches, hemispherical domes, niches and aedicules replaced the more complex proportional systems and irregular profiles of medieval buildings.
   1. Quattrocento

      Annotations:

      • In the Quattrocento, concepts of architectural order were explored and rules were formulated. (SeeCharacteristics of Renaissance Architecture, below.) The study of classical antiquity led in particular to the adoption of Classical detail and ornamentation.Space, as an element of architecture, was utilised differently from the way it had been in the Middle Ages. Space was organised by proportional logic, its form and rhythm subject to geometry, rather than being created by intuition as in Medieval buildings. The prime example of this is the Basilica di San Lorenzo inFlorence by Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446).
   2. High Renaissance

      Annotations:

      • During the High Renaissance, concepts derived from classical antiquity were developed and used with greater surety. The most representative architect isBramante (1444–1514) who expanded the applicability of classical architecture to contemporary buildings. His San Pietro in Montorio (1503) was directly inspired by circular Roman temples. He was, however, hardly a slave to the classical forms and it was his style that was to dominate Italian architecture in the 16th century
   3. Mannerism

      Annotations:

      • During the Mannerist period, architects experimented with using architectural forms to emphasize solid and spatial relationships. The Renaissance ideal of harmony gave way to freer and more imaginative rhythms. The best known architect associated with the Mannerist style was Michelangelo (1475–1564), who is credited with inventing the giant order, a large pilaster that stretches from the bottom to the top of a façade.[12] He used this in his design for the Campidoglio in Rome. Prior to the 20th century, the term Mannerism had negative connotations, but it is now used to describe the historical period in more general non-judgemental terms.
   4. From Renaissance to Baroque

      Annotations:

      • As the new style of architecture spread out from Italy, most other European countries developed a sort of proto-Renaissance style, before the construction of fully formulated Renaissance buildings. Each country in turn then grafted its own architectural traditions to the new style, so that Renaissance buildings across Europe are diversified by region. Within Italy the evolution of Renaissance architecture into Mannerism, with widely diverging tendencies in the work of Michelangelo and Giulio Romano and Andrea Palladio, led to the Baroque style in which the same architectural vocabulary was used for very different rhetoric. Outside Italy, Baroque architecture was more widespread and fully developed than the Renaissance style, with significant buildings as far afield as Mexico and the Philippines.
   5. Brunelleschi

      Annotations:

      • Filippo Brunelleschi (1377 – April 15, 1446) was an Italian designer and a key figure in architecture, recognised to be the first modern engineer, planner and sole construction supervisor. He was the oldest amongst the founding fathers of the Renaissance. He is generally well known for developing a technique for linear perspective in art and for building the dome of the Florence Cathedral. Heavily depending on mirrors and geometry, to "reinforce Christian spiritual 'reality'", his formulation of linear perspective governed pictorial depiction of space until the late 19th century. It also had the most profound – and quite unanticipated – influence on the rise of modern science. His accomplishments also include other architectural works, sculpture, mathematics, engineering, and ship design. His principal surviving works are to be found in Florence, Italy. Unfortunately, his two original linear perspective panels have been lost.
3. Arts

   Annotations:

   • Renaissance art is the painting, sculpture and decorative arts of that period of European history known as theRenaissance, emerging as a distinct style in Italy in about 1400, in parallel with developments which occurred in philosophy,literature, music and science. Renaissance art, perceived as a royalty of ancient traditions, took as its foundation the art ofClassical antiquity, but transformed that tradition by the absorption of recent developments in the art of Northern Europe and by application of contemporary scientific knowledge. Renaissance art, with Renaissance Humanist philosophy, spread throughout Europe, affecting both artists and their patrons with the development of new techniques and new artistic sensibilities. Renaissance art marks the transition of Europe from the medieval period to the Early Modern age. In many parts of Europe, Early Renaissance art was created in parallel with Late Medieval art. The influences upon the development of Renaissance men and women in the early 15th century are those that also affected Philosophy, Literature, Architecture, Theology, Science, Government and other aspects of society.
   1. Donatello

      Annotations:

      • Donato di Niccolò di Betto Bardi (c. 1386 – December 13, 1466), better known as Donatello, was an early Renaissance sculptor from Florence. He studied classical sculpture, and used this to develop a fully Renaissance style in sculpture, whose periods in Rome,Padua and Siena introduced to other parts of Italy a long and productive career. He worked in stone, bronze, wood, clay, stucco and wax, and had several assistants, with four perhaps being a typical number. Though his best-known works were mostly statues in the round, he developed a new, very shallow, type of bas-relief for small works, and a good deal of his output was larger architectural reliefs.
   2. Raphael

      Annotations:

      • Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino (April 6 or March 28, 1483 – April 6, 1520),known as Raphael was an Italian painter and architect of the High Renaissance. His work is admired for its clarity of form, ease of composition, and visual achievement of the Neoplatonic ideal of human grandeur. Together with Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci, he forms the traditional trinity of great masters of that period.[4] Raphael was enormously productive, running an unusually large workshop and, despite his death at 37, leaving a large body of work. Many of his works are found in the Vatican Palace, where the frescoed Raphael Rooms were the central, and the largest, work of his career. The best known work is The School of Athens in the Vatican Stanza della Segnatura. After his early years in Rome much of his work was executed by his workshop from his drawings, with considerable loss of quality. He was extremely influential in his lifetime, though outside Rome his work was mostly known from his collaborative printmaking. After his death, the influence of his great rival Michelangelo was more widespread until the 18th and 19th centuries, when Raphael's more serene and harmonious qualities were again regarded as the highest models. His career falls naturally into three phases and three styles, first described byGiorgio Vasari: his early years in Umbria, then a period of about four years (1504–1508) absorbing the artistic traditions of Florence, followed by his last hectic and triumphant twelve years in Rome, working for two Popes and their close associates.
   3. Michelangelo

      Annotations:

      • Michelangelo was an Italian sculptor, painter, architect, poet, and engineer of the High Renaissance who exerted an unparalleled influence on the development of Western art. Considered to be  the greatest living artist during his lifetime. Two of his best-known works, the Pietà and David, were sculpted before the age of thirty. 
   4. Perspective

      Annotations:

      • ow well was perspective understood in the Renaissance? The conventional history is based on verbal accounts by Manetti (1480) and Vasari (1550), that it was first analyzed by the architect Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446) and demonstrated to his fellow Florentines in two dramatic peep-shows at some unspecified time between the years 1405 and 1425. Brunelleschi is frequently attributed with the knowledge of the one-point perspective construction and its introduction into Renaissance art. In fact, however, his peep-shows contained no one-point elements capable of supporting this construction and no paintings can be found with accurate one-point construction before the year 1423. (The peep-shows have not survived, but are described vividly by Manetti.) Moreover, the two-point construction of the peep-shows is virtually unknown throughout the Renaissance, seriously challenging the idea that Brunelleschi had a significant impact on the style of his fellow painters. Far from bursting full-fledged onto the Renaissance scene in the first quarter of the 15th century, a careful analysis of perspective styles reveals that understanding of the intricacies of perspective was reached only gradually over a period of 400 years. This survey focuses on one of its most accomplished exponents, Raffaello Sanzio (1483-1520), generally known as Raphael, and places his work in the context of other significant developments of the period.
4. Change
5. Politics and politicians
   1. Machiavelli

      Annotations:

      • Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli was an Italian Renaissance historian, politician, diplomat, philosopher, humanist, and writer. He has often been called the founder of modern political science.[1] He was for many years a senior official in the Florentine Republic, with responsibilities in diplomatic and military affairs. He also wrote comedies, carnival songs, and poetry. His personal correspondence is renowned in the Italian language. He was secretary to the Second Chancery of the Republic of Florence from 1498 to 1512, when the Medici were out of power. He wrote his most renowned work The Prince (Il Principe) in 1513."Machiavellianism" is a widely used negative term to characterize unscrupulous politicians of the sort Machiavelli described most famously in The Prince. Machiavelli described immoral behavior, such as dishonesty and killing innocents, as being normal and effective in politics. He even seemed to endorse it in some situations. The book itself gained notoriety when some readers claimed that the author was teaching evil, and providing "evil recommendations to tyrants to help them maintain their power."[2] The term "Machiavellian" is often associated with political deceit, deviousness, and realpolitik. On the other hand, many commentators, such as Baruch Spinoza, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Denis Diderot, have argued that Machiavelli was actually a republican, even when writing The Prince, and his writings were an inspiration to Enlightenment proponents of modern democratic political philosophy.
   2. Medici Family

      Annotations:

      • Medici family was a Italian banking family which was the wealthiest family in the Europe for a time. They are also a political dynasty and royol house in the Republic of Florence. They produced three popes and two queens of France. For the influence of Medici Family, the Medici Bank was the largest bank in the world
   3. Power of the Church and Kings Challenged

      Annotations:

      • During the Renaissance the demands of society shifted and became based on money instead of allegiances. The church had a difficult time adjusting to this new way of thinking. For example, the parish priests and monks had long served as the religious teachers of the peasants, but as the commercial class began to grow, the priests found that they knew very little about the needs of this new class of people.
6. ideology
   1. Humanism

      Annotations:

      • Humanism is a philosophical and ethical stance that emphasizes the value and agency of human beings, individually and collectively, and generally prefers critical thinking and evidence (rationalism, empiricism) over acceptance of dogma or superstition. The meaning of the term humanism has fluctuated according to the successive intellectual movements which have identified with it. Generally, however, humanism refers to a perspective that affirms some notion of human freedom and progress. In modern times, humanist movements are typically aligned with secularism, and today humanism typically refers to a non-theistic life stance centred on human agency and looking to science rather than revelation from a supernatural source to understand the world.
   2. Independent thinking
   3. Non Religious Themes

      Annotations:

      • When characterized as the rejection of religious belief, it encompasses atheism, agnosticism, religious dissidence, and secular humanism. When characterized as the absence of religious belief, it may also include "spiritual but not religious", pandeism, ignosticism, nontheism, pantheism,panentheism, and freethought. When characterized as indifference to religion, it is known as apatheism. When characterized as hostility towards religion, it encompasses antitheism and/or antireligion. Irreligion may include some forms of theism, depending on the religious context it is defined against; for example, in 18th-century Europe, theepitome of irreligion was deism.[2] According to Pew Research Center projections, the nonreligious, though temporarily increasing, will ultimately decline significantly by 2050 because of lower reproductive rates and ageing.
   4. Rebirth of Classical Ideas

      Annotations:

      • Renaissance was considered as a rebirth of classical ideas which from ancient Rome and Greece. Especially in painting and sculpture, lots of artists used the similar style as before. Furthermore, development in this period is also rapidly and create some new ideologies. 
7. Science
   1. Copernicus

      Annotations:

      • Nicolaus Copernicus( 19 February 1473 – 24 May 1543) was a Renaissance mathematician and astronomer who formulated a model of the universe that placed the Sun rather than the Earth at the center of the universe.[a] The publication of this model in his book De revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres) just before his death in 1543 is considered a major event in the history of science, triggering the Copernican Revolution and making an important contribution to the Scientific Revolution. Copernicus was born and died in Royal Prussia, a region that had been a part of the Kingdom of Poland since 1466. He was a polyglot andpolymath who obtained a doctorate in canon law and also practiced as a physician, classics scholar, translator, governor, diplomat, and economist. Like the rest of his family, he was a third order Dominican.[5] In 1517 he derived a quantity theory of money – a key concept in economics – and in 1519 he formulated a version of what later became known as Gresham's law.
   2. Galileo

      Annotations:

      • Galileo Galilei ( 15 February 1564[3] – 8 January 1642), was an Italian astronomer, physicist, engineer,philosopher, and mathematician who played a major role in the scientific revolution during the Renaissance. Galileo has been called the "father ofobservational astronomy",the "father of modern physics",and the "father of science".His contributions to observational astronomy include the telescopic confirmation of the phases of Venus, the discovery of the four largest satellites of Jupiter (named the Galilean moons in his honour), and the observation and analysis of sunspots. Galileo also worked in applied science and technology, inventing an improved military compass and other instruments. Galileo's championing of heliocentrism and Copernicanism was controversial within his lifetime, when most subscribed to either geocentrism or theTychonic system.[8] He met with opposition from astronomers, who doubted heliocentrism due to the absence of an observed stellar parallax.[8] The matter was investigated by the Roman Inquisition in 1615, and they concluded that it could only be supported as a possibility, not as an established fact.Galileo later defended his views in Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, which appeared to attack Pope Urban VIII and thus alienated him and the Jesuits, who had both supported Galileo up until this point. He was tried by the Inquisition, found "vehemently suspect of heresy", forced to recant, and spent the rest of his life under house arrest. It was while Galileo was under house arrest that he wrote one of his most well known works, Two New Sciences. Here he summarized the work he had done some forty years earlier, on the two sciences now calledkinematics and strength of materials.
   3. Madicine

      Annotations:

      • The Medical Renaissance, from 1400 to 1700 CE, is the period of progress in European medical knowledge, and a renewed interest in the ancient ideas of the Greeks and Romans.Progress made during the Medical Renaissance depended on several factors.[1][2] Printed books based on movable type, adopted in Europe from the middle of the 15th century, allowed the diffusion of medical ideas and anatomical diagrams. Better knowledge of the original writings of Galen in particular, developed into the learned medicine tradition through the more open attitudes of Renaissance humanism. Church control of the teachings of the medical profession and universities diminished, and dissection was more often possible.In the 17th century the microscope was an important technical advance.
   4. Vesalius

      Annotations:

      • Vesalius was an anatomist, physician and author of the most influential books on human anatomy De humani corporis fabrica.  Vesalius is often referred to as the founder of modern human anatomy. He was born in Brussels, which though now part of Belgium, was then part of the Habsburg Netherlands. He was professor at the University of Padua and later became Imperial physician at the court of Emperor Charles V.
8. Printing

   Annotations:

   • The printing in renaissance was developing rapidly. The invention of printing press, some achievement of famous people in printing. Especially Printing press invented by Gutenberg changed the life of people in renaissance. Before the invention of it, the book was written words by words with hands on animal skin mostly. It made the price of book too high to buy for poor or normal people. Printing press reduce the price of book and make the spreading of culture easily.
   1. Famous Printed Bible

      Annotations:

      • The Gutenberg Bible (also known as the 42-line Bible, the Mazarin Bible or the B42) was the first major book printed using mass-produced movable type. It marked the start of the "Gutenberg Revolution" and the age of the printed book in the West. Widely praised for its high aesthetic and artistic qualities,[1] the book has an iconic status. Written in Latin, the Catholic Gutenberg Bible is an edition of the Vulgate, printed by Johannes Gutenberg, in Mainz, in present-day Germany, in the 1450s. Forty-nine copies, or substantial portions of copies, survive, and they are considered to be among the most valuable books in the world, even though no complete copy has been sold since 1978. The 36-line Bible, believed to be the second printed version of the Bible, is also sometimes referred to as a Gutenberg Bible, but is likely the work of another printer.
   2. Gutenberg

      Annotations:

      • Johannes Gutenberg  (c. 1398 – February 3, 1468) was aGerman blacksmith, goldsmith, printer, and publisher who introduced printing to Europe. His introduction of mechanical movable type printing to Europe started the Printing Revolution and is widely regarded as the most important invention of the second millennium, the seminal event which ushered in the modern period of human history.It played a key role in the development of the Renaissance, Reformation, the Age of Enlightenment, and the scientific revolution and laid the material basis for the modern knowledge-based economy and the spread of learning to the masses.
9. Florence

   Annotations:

   • Of a population estimated at 80,000 before the Black Death of 1349, about 25,000 are estimated to have been engaged in the city's wool industry: in 1345 Florence was the scene of an attempted strike by wool carders (ciompi), who in 1378 rose up in a brief revolt against oligarchic rule in the Revolt of the Ciompi. After their suppression, the city came under the sway (1382–1434) of the Albizzi family, bitter rivals of the Medici. Cosimo de' Medici was the first Medici family member to essentially control the city from behind the scenes. Although the city was technically a democracy of sorts, his power came from a vast patronage network along with his alliance to the new immigrants, the gente nuova. The fact that the Medici were bankers to the pope also contributed to their rise. Cosimo was succeeded by his son Piero di Cosimo de' Medici, who was shortly thereafter succeeded by Cosimo's grandson,Lorenzo in 1469. Lorenzo was a great patron of the arts, commissioning works by Michelangelo, Leonardo da Vinci and Botticelli.
10. Leonardo da Vinci

    Annotations:

    • was an Italian polymath whose areas of interest included invention, painting, sculpting, architecture, science, music, mathematics,engineering, literature, anatomy, geology, astronomy, botany, writing, history, and cartography. He has been variously called the father ofpaleontology, ichnology, and architecture, and is widely considered one of the greatest painters of all time.
11. Patrons

    Annotations:

    • The 15th century was the perfect time for the rise of powerful patrons. Italy was not a unified nation, but a series of city-states, independent governments around an urban center. As various cities developed more and more power, the leaders of these cities became very powerful themselves. We call these the Italian Princes, but really the leaders were dukes, counts, lords, cardinals, or even elected city representatives. These princes established their own courts and hired painters or sculptors to be the official court artists. Besides these princes, Italy was also filling up with wealthy merchants and bankers that developed personal fortunes from a lucrative market of international trade. So, Italy was full of people who had power. What's more, these people were very proud of their power and really, really liked showing it off. So, there's two check marks on the patron checklist. But you need one more thing to really have a strong culture of patronage: education. Your wealthy, often vain, citizens need to care about art to be willing to pay for it. Italian humanism, a philosophy of art, poetry, and classical knowledge, grew rapidly in the 15th century. The princes relied on an image of being well educated, intellectual, and devoted to the arts and philosophy. So, there you go, the perfect mixture to create a society of patrons.
12. literature
    1. Petrarch

       Annotations:

       • was an Italian scholar and poet in Renaissance Italy, and one of the earliest humanists. Petrarch's rediscovery of Cicero's letters is often credited for initiating the 14th-century Renaissance. Petrarch is often called the "Father of Humanism".In the 16th century, Pietro Bembo created the model for the modern Italian language based on Petrarch's works, as well as those of Giovanni Boccaccio, and, to a lesser extent, Dante Alighieri. Petrarch would be later endorsed as a model for Italian style by the Accademia della Crusca. Petrarch's sonnets were admired and imitated throughout Europe during the Renaissance and became a model for lyrical poetry. He is also known for being the first to develop the concept of the "Dark Ages." This standing back from his time was possible because he straddled two worlds - the classical and his own modern day.
    2. Shakespeare

       Annotations:

       • William Shakespeare was an English poet, playwright, and actor, widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist.He is often called England's national poet, and the "Bard of Avon". His extant works, including collaborations, consist of approximately 38 plays 154 sonnets, two long narrative poems, and a few other verses, some of uncertain authorship. His plays have been translated into every major living language and are performed more often than those of any other playwright.