Research Methods

Annotations:

• Triangulation is the use of two or more research methods in a single piece of research to check the reliability and validity of research evidence.
• Triangulation is useful because not only does it check the research you have done, it can also offer new insights and ways at looking at things, especially if using very different types such as official statistics and observations.

1. Official statistics
   1. Census

      Annotations:

      • Contains lots of demographic information such as birth/death rates, marriage etc.
2. Documents

   Annotations:

   • Any written text, eg. personal diaries, government reports, media forms etc.
3. Case studies

   Annotations:

   • Longitudinal studies such as the tv programme '7 up'.

1. Artificial/Laboratory experiments

   Annotations:

   • Used by positivists who prefer reliable, value free, structured quantitative data.
   • Stanley Milgram (1946) carried out an experiment into discipline and obedience which was inspired by the cruelty of the Nazis.
   • This test involved putting the subject in control in what they were told was a shock machine. They were made believe that they were monitoring how electrocution affected a persons productivity.
   • Overseeing the experiment was a scientist in a white lab coat who consistently told them that the experiment must continue even when the shock reached lethal levels. Around 60% of the test subjects went all the way to the full shock value.
2. Natural/Field experiments
   1. Extraneous variables

      Annotations:

      • The factors that can affect the outcome of an experiment, eg. random freak weather events. Lab experiments aim to eliminate these variables.

Annotations:

• A positivist sociologist wants to identify the underlying cause of people's behaviour.
• The data collected is usually quantitative. 
• Any method is acceptable as long as it involves systematic collection of evidence.
• It is a macro approach.  (big scale outlook.) 

Annotations:

• An interpretivist sociologist wants to understand how people give meaning to the social world around them.
• The data collected is qualitative.
• Any method is acceptable as long as it helps to understand people's motives and feelings. 
• It is a micro approach.

1. Time
2. Research Opportunity
3. Access
4. Money
5. Personality
6. Sampling

1. Deception
2. Right to withdraw
3. Informed consent
4. Protection from harm

1. Participant observation
   1. Overt

      Annotations:

      • A writer joins a group of miners and works with them after explaining that he will be writing a book about them and their profession. 
   2. Covert

      Annotations:

      • A researcher pretends to be a teaching assistant to observe the classroom behaviour of pupils.
      • A researcher joins an illegal gang to observe the relationships that exist within the group.
2. Non-participant observation
   1. Covert

      Annotations:

      • Example: A researcher pretends to be a normal bus passenger to observe pupil's interactions on the way home from school
      • Big brother. (TV show.)
   2. Overt

      Annotations:

      • Educating Yorkshire.
      • A researcher is introduced by the teacher (as a researcher) and then sits at the back of a classroom and conducts his observations.

1. Structured Interviews

   Annotations:

   • Similar strengths and weaknesses to questionnaires, but even more time consuming
   • Feminists have often criticised questionnaires and structured interviews as they see them as patriarchal, putting the researcher in control
2. Unstructured Interviews

   Annotations:

   • 'Pros:  - Rapport can be built with participants - Flexible - Observer can develop a greater level of understanding
   • Con's:  - Quality of results is dependent on the skill of the researcher - Time can be an issue - Data can be time consuming and difficult to analyse - Reliability issues can arise from lack of trust between the interviewer and the observer
3. Group interviews

   Annotations:

   • Pro's: - Participants may feel more cumfortable - Participants are usually with their peers - Discussion based - Researcher can combine questioning with the group dynamic
   • Con's:  - Some individuals may dominate the discussion - Requires a skilled researcher to  keep the group focused - Peer pressure may stop individuals from casting their own opinions  - thus, result may not be representative 
   • Alfred Kingsley conducted an interview on people's sexual behaviour. He asked questions very quickly so that participants had less time to think about the question, and would just give a straight answer. He followed up the questions 18 months later to compare and test the reliability
   • In Howard Becker's 'ideal student' study, he used informal behaviour and language in his interviews. He played dumb to observe how it affected his results.

1. Open questions

   Annotations:

   • - The respondent is able to give any answer they wish in their own words. -This leads to higher validity. - Harder to analyse
2. Closed questions

   Annotations:

   • - Limited range of possible answers  - Easy to analyse

1. Practical issues

   Annotations:

   • Carrying out wide studies in education can be time consuming and expensive, and provide a lot of data to process because of the size of the school and the amount of factors involved in a school.
   • Access is one of the largest issues in carrying out research on education because it focuses on children and teachers, which brings in factors like child protection and professional confidentiality. 
   • Opportunity is an important factor in research as it may be difficult for teachers and students to find the time to answer surveys etc.

1. Random

   Annotations:

   • Random sampling can be performed quickly and easily which can also make it cheaper.
   • It does not often provide a representative sample.
2. Systematic

   Annotations:

   • Selecting a random sample according to a formula such as picking every 5th person.
   • There is more order than random sampling because it follows a set pattern.
   • It is more time consuming than random sampling and doesn't provide a representative sample.
3. Stratified/Quota

   Annotations:

   • Dividing the entire population into proportional numbers so that all groups within the population are proportionally represented
   • For example, if 50% of a population of 1000 were white British, then you would take five white British people in a sample of ten.
   • - Highly representative of the entire population.
   • - Very long and time consuming - Requires high levels of calculation when it comes to high numbers of people - Requires prior data such as census data to calculate strata sizes.
4. Opportunity

   Annotations:

   • Using a sample of people that happened to be there at the time. Eg. street research
   • Quick and easy
   • - Participants may not be a representative sample. - People may refuse to participate due to the informal nature.
5. Snowball

   Annotations:

   • Using the personal connections of members of the sample to create a larger sample size Eg. asking a drug dealer for users 
   • - Can make it easier to reach a specific sample when carrying out research in context
   • - The participants will all have the same connection making them less representative.

1. Methodology

   Annotations:

   • Willis used participant observations and recorded group discussions.
   • His study may not have been reliable because it only focused on 12 people who were all friends.
   • Willis had difficulties in controlling his own position within the group who were cunts.
2. Analysis

   Annotations:

   • The lads were aware of the fact that they were most likely going to be working class for the rest of their lives however they were accepting of this.
   • Also they were aware of their position within society and that the middle class were dependent on the existence of the working class and vice versa.
   • They resisted teachers commands through humour as a from of protest to the ruling class.