To what extent was Mussolini in control of Italy by 1928?

To what extent was Mussolini in control of Italy by 1928?

1. Society and Leisure

   • Dopolavoro - controlled leisure activities, influenced workers towards a Fascist way of life; soccer clubs, 1,350 theatres, 2,000 dramatic societies
   • OND - national after work group, aimed to raise living standards and aimed to 'brainwash' Italians - set up on Labour day in order to rival socialists
     • controlled the Ministry of Economics until 1927
     • It had a lot of control - 300,000 members in the first year and 4,000,000 by 1939
     • They didn't focus too much on Fascist ideology
   • Attempts to control behaviour didn't work - greeting wasn't changed

2. Personal Rule

   • Mussolini made laws by decree
   • the King lost the right to select the Prime Minister
   • Mussolini purged people who disagreed with him out of the Fascist Party - or sent them away e.g. Italo Balbo was sent to Libya
   • the Fascist Grand Council was created - later replaced the Cabinet
   • Officials were promoted to high positions - people joined the Fascist Party to get better careers
   • Mussolini controlled the judges by blackmailing them into being sympathetic towards Fascism
   • The King was still able to sack Mussolini - he didn't until 1943
   • People were suspicious towards the government
   • People in the South didn't understand messages from Rome - illiteracy was still a problem

3. Removal of Opposition

   • They had prison camps on islands
   • People were arrested with charges of conspiracy
   • Censorship - anti-Fascist propaganda was treason, journalists had to register with the government
   • OVRA - secret police, 2,000 actions weekly, had informants and agents
   • 10,000 people in internal exile 'confino'
   • 50,000 armed militia; squadristi violence reduced after 1925
   • Comparison with Hitler and Stalin
     • less prisoners than Nazis (5,000 compared to 100,000s)
     • not systematic
     • make opponents conform instead of being brutal
     • 400 killed by legal means
     • didn't repress as much as Stalin and Hitler

4. Control of the Media

   • Mussolini was glorified with photography and his visual image
   • Heavy censorship - mostly done by newspaper editors
   • LUCE - set up to produce documentaries and newsreels
   • The government intervened with the film industry - part of Autarky policy
   • Newspapers were attacked by squaristi - some journalists and editors were arrested
   • The only press agency was run by a Fascist
   • Fascist newspaper only had 10% of circulation
   • The amount of official broadcasts increased in the 1930s

5. Propaganda and the Cult of Personality

   • Mussolini was portrayed as heroic and fit (he wasn't)
   • Most people were sceptical of the 'Cult of Ducismo', but it did help to convince people there was no alternative to Fascism
   • Italians were told that foreigners liked Mussolini - they didn't

6. Fascism and the Catholic Church

   • Improved relations
     • Pope withdrew from politics
     • Popoolari - Catholic party formed in 1923
     • Lateran agreements - 1929
     • Support for invasion of Ethiopia - 1936
     • Catholicism recognised as state religion
   • Dsiputes over Catholic action youth group (1931)
   • Papal opposition to anti-Semitism (1938)

7. Fascism and anti-Semitism

   • 1938 - Italian Fascism became closer to Nazi Regime
   • lots of members of anti-Fascist group 'Justice and Liberty' were Jewish
   • July 1938 - Jews declared as non-Italians
   • August 1938 - Jews banned from state schools
   • October 1938 - banned from Fascist Party
   • November 1938 - banned from marrying non-Jews - however this law was inconsistent
   • November 1943 - 7,500 Jews sent to concentration camp