The French Revolution

France 1650 - 1800

sourced from: France a companion to French studies edited by D,G. Charlton from 77 King was the 'head' of the Church in france + divinely installed upon the throne - arguments on theoretical basis of his sovereignty Clergy at estates general + @ assembly < aggressive Gallicanism unlike parlements poor - charities + poor houses which despite not kindly contained a potentially dangerous element on urban scene.    only few benefitted from this charity + poor revolts Fonde 1648... fiscal reasons for revolts, but no revolutionary characteristics Frondeur - political rebel: demanded abolition of intendants, tax reductions, approval of taxes by parliament, no arbitrary imprisonment largest complaints  voiced in parliament union may 1648, sovereign paris courts united met at Chamber de Saint- Louis 4 reforms 1649 The Fronde began existing powers trying to defend their powers wars - Franco Spanish 1635-1659, depleted finances, but ended with marriage btw Louis XIV and spanish bride 1660   1661 x french minister dec by king, start of a sort of personal rule however his authority was limited. This was bc policies evolved in central councils + approved by king had to be implemented by monolithic venal bureaucracy where there was opp 2 delay orders. Also only partially carried out claims of intendants as so called absolute monarchy 1660s - clashes btw intendants + law courts o colbert - tried to reduce corruption in the bureaucracy, aided finances which were an issue in 1661 as Louis liked to spend lavishly in court    attempts to inc revenue of the crown + tap other sources of revenue from the crown that that had escaped the burden of taxation                   exploitation of finances from Richelieu + Mazarin = mistrust in government intentions fiscal burden on poorer subjects under Louis XIV - decrese taxes + increase indirect levies on a larger range of people which was not a result out of concern but more their inhability to pay subsequent taxes after seizing their livestock which subsequently lead them impoverished pays d'etats the estates had right to dispute exact amount of direct taxes levied within the province = rise to bargaining -> estates demanded preservation of provincial priveleges as the price the crown needed to pay 4 revenues (normal and allowed to come to a conmpromise) expansion of commerce -> colbert hoped to improve french finances casual support from King preffering to think of wars and glory. few nobles becoming involved in it (outnumbered by commoners wanting to join the beuracracy) Louis approved of Colberts hatred of the dutch albeit for different reasons. Colbert -> sponsor schemes for new bridges + canals, but  royal administration inadequate to supervise such projects so entrusted to private indivs = toll on routes to benefit themseleves.  usually crown would give a grant towards but bc pays d'etats, which king considered to be undertaxed, financial burden laid on provincial estates colbert -> encouraged immigration of foreign craftsmen, mobilize the poor, regulations abt quality, tried to standardize weights and measures + advocate of expansion of mining muncipaities a problem- abused their powers, they had responsibilities e.g. law and order, or street cleaning but they were neglected 1667 better police forces in paris colbert - not wholly successful but improved efficiency of administraiton, reduced differences in outlook+ policy btw localities and cent gov. extended control of royal ministers over kingdom + wasnt able to achieve some of his aims all together  1672-8 Dutch war   issues of war, religion and the king 1670s/80s Louis XVI restrictions on the Huguenots party in France by twisting clause of Edict of Nantes financial crisis of later reign not only caused by war: disruption of trade, severe economic depression, riots frequent inc Huguenots. Peasants died of starvation Bigger gap btw lower and upper levels 1693-4 terrible harvest = deaths, loss of vital taxpayers at a key moment Trade prospered but during the War of the League of Augsburg ports declined and industry was affected by return of foreign craftsman 1697 Rijswijk treaty, good harvests, inc trade, red taxation Chamillart + Desmarets tried to manipulate the coinage but harmed state’s credit Various reports of peasants living in caves + subsisting on roots, but in 1709 innumerable deaths from hunger, reports of cannibalism amongst starving children Heir to the throne did 1711, Duc de Bourgogne king’s grandson also died (pinned hopes on for reform)               Vacancy to the throne gave possibilities of ambitious to follow their own careers   After Colbert’s death all of his efforts were scrapped, and most of King (Louis XVI’s[BO1] ) wisest advisors had died during the last 15yrs of his reign which meant there was a gap for talent to rule the kingdom       French Society in the 18th century   Peasants -> 4/5ths of 20million Frenchmen 1700               (remained constant) Regency[BO2]  -> gained a little economic ground               Some good harvests and reduction in the pressure on land afforded by depopulation, which also compensated for the heavy burden of taxes and reduction in taxpayers               Large number of Frenchmen were back to work under peacetime conditions + inc overseas trading Marginal improvement to the lives of peasant Frenchmen in the 18th century   Attitudes towards the government: suspicious when appt new ministers which either attack or a novel tax followed               Richer peasants were more likely to move out of towns because otherwise they’d have to pay extra tax contribution   Localities continued to defend their rights, which carried on through the preceding century, which made attempts to undermine them more regular   Intendant [BO3] mouthpiece of the king’s wishes, but also listened to local communities despite only having the ability and inclination to tie up loose ends   Centralized power had survived, the parliament, the estates and assemblies, sovereign courts and the municipalities and guilds. Higher Clergy + nobility at top of social pyramid despite composition change.               Inc in ranks 2 aristocrats etc.   After 1715 nobility keen to defend their privileges and traditional aristocratic life based on their landed wealth, which in turn lead to increased power + ranks.               The financier, and some other Bourgeois their aim was nobility of office or of the sword. Financiers married their daughters to poor but well off aristocratic houses and purchased nobility for their sons.               The old nobility saw this as a threat to the traditional hierarchy, so voiced their grievances through the high noblesse de robe or parliaments 2nd half of 18th century tried to exclude parvenus [BO4] from their ranks which didn’t turn out how they wanted, as money was still a valid qualification for higher outposts.   Nobles of the Robe and Nobles of the sword (d’epee’[BO5] ), formidable and many OLD aristocratic families saw position of the high robe as a desirable one.      Senior Robins good place in the social hierarchy and tried to expand their sphere of influence further by purchasing offices for relatives, investing in land, placing sons in more traditional noble callings of army and church.               = Nobles of the swords siding with the defenders of their privileges.   NOBLES: Hereditary, and has titles (barons, earls etc) ARISTOCRACY: kind of hereditary, in the sense that rich people have rich kids, tend to have more wealth, power and prestige GENTRY: people of good social position, class of people next below the nobility                 Reasons for this defence:   Attempts by the central government to tap into the wealth + red independence of the aristocracy   Royal ministers understood taxation was impossible while the nobility was exempt from direct taxation + held control over courts and provincial institutions People regarded the government as a threat, which was reinforced by the parlements. Nobles + Gentry split like third estate; some nobles still denied of ability to participate in retail trade = resemblance to peasants than grand seigneurs[BO6] . Urban Patriciate sometimes made cause with the nobility against the crown.               Guilds of merchants and craftsmen which were aided by Colbert rose to higher positions as fortunes of their members increased MY ANALYSIS OF THIS: YOU CAN SEE THE NOBLES AND THOSE OF HIGHER POWER BANDING TOGETHER TO BRING MORE POWER TO THEMSELEVES - 99   Argued that within this century, the social setting remained relatively stable  [BO1]Check  [BO2]Define what this is  [BO3]Define  [BO4]Person of humble origins who has gained wealth, influence or celebrity  [BO5]Check  [BO6]A man whose rank or position allows him to command others   Louis XV parlementaries + aristocratic reformers established monarchy that used traditional advisers Peers, illustrious aristocratic families inc reforming writers + powerful political governors, influential favourites, powerless reactionaries, united in greivences against king Louis XIV    king given children precedence over them (= parleament reverse decision), Loathed Louis' advisers, peerage deprived of all power (by those never favourited) reassertion of their status as an elite group - aristocratic concililar system to pursue an enlightened course wanted to reverse the Colbertian mercantilism  most clung to their exemptions bar the few englihtened who wanted universal taxes regent familiy - set aside kings will as could rely upon: nobles (1), parlement(2), Jansenets (3) 1. detested bastards + hoped for power of beuracracy curbed 2. wanted to regain influence ( granted remonstrance b4 edicts + dismissed bastards) 3. loathed Madame de Maintenon and Jesuits (was given)             supressed 1718             robe and epee suffered massive defeats, losing opportunity of gaining higher positions and pre-eminence             peers alienated members of ancient nobility government task : reform royal finances = Chambre de justice to extract money from the financiers, which unltimately left the wealthy unscathed The Regent: Scot John Law 1716, personal control of tax collection + hopefully trading with North America which collapsed in 1720 = greater ruin to some people             that left suspicion with the upper social levels, world of trade and credit was unsafe  

Overview of the French Revolution : What was it?

information links: https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/ https://www.britannica.com/event/French-Revolution

late 18th century - population gross inequality and exploitation social hierarchy -> needed the Third Estate for work + shouldering tax burden First estate (clergy), second estate (nobility), third estate (commoners)       third estate - 27 million people, politically invisible,       unrepresented, no influence on the government King - royal government absolutist in theory, ineffectual in reality       royal government -  France was absolutist, divine right monarchy, by kings who believed themselves all-powerful bc authority drawn from God.  National Treasury was drained from mismanagement, inefficiency, corruption, profligate spending + foreign wars. 1780s needed fiscal reforms - 1st tax reforms to political + constitutional change Estates - General = national assembly formation wave of popular violence (paris, countryside, Versailles) hinted at bloodier revolution 1787 - 1799 actual revolution in French participants: Bourgeoisie, Montagnard, peasants, philosophie, sansculotte the end of the ancien Regime in France Peasants, many owning land wanted to get rid of the last vestiges of feudalism to aquire full rights of landowners lower mortality rate = greater population = greater supply demands Gold mines in Brazil = rise in prices + good economic situation downhill bc trend slackened 1770 = economic crisis + revolts,  Enlightenment spread through EDUCATED CLASSES by 'societies of thought' ideas of political crisis - expenditure = taxing nobles and clergy = dissatisfaction reasons commonly adduced - Bourgeoisie resented exclusion from political power + pos of honour (2) peasants aware of situation, less willing to support anachronistic feudal system (3) philosophes more widely read in France than anywhere else (4) French participation in American revolution = bankruptcy (5) French population and crop failures = economic difficulties, restlessness (6) French monarchy  unable to keep up with political and societal pressures exerted upon int

William Doyle : The French Revolution

France Before the Revolution : J.H. Shennan

France in Revolution: Dylan Rees

Own notes 4 overview

notes/key terms

Bourgeoisie: (info via britannica)    refers to social order dominated by middle class - social/political theory notion of the bourgeoisie construct of Karl Marx and those influenced by him. Marx believed the French Revolution was the revolution of the bourgeois Marxist theory on it; heroic role by revolutionizing the industry + modernizing society, monopolize these benefits by exploiting propertyless proletariat (working-class) = revolutionary tensions orig - medieval france       important 18th century - working class demanded influence in politics consistent w economic status Edict of Nantes - Granted large amounts of religious liberties to his protestant subjects the Huguenots by Henry IV of France. Granted unheard religious rights of the protestant minority in France.   georges Lefebvre - 'meanwhile the growth of commerce and industry had creates, step by step, a new form of wealth...and a new class, called in France the Bourgeoisie...taken its place as the Third Estate in the General Estates of the kingdom.'      stronger w maritime discoveries, highly useful to monarchy with money and competent officials rescued royal treasury in moment of crisis as other group's (e.g. nobility + clergy) power declined it was transferred to the Bourgeoisie (economic power, personal abilities, confidence in the future)   Philosophes  intellectuals whose writings inspired these arguments   any literary men, thinkers of 18th century france united for conviction of supremacy and efficacy of human reason support for social, economic and political reforms, weakening of absolute monarchy + wars from Louis XIV's reign. notable Philosophes - Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot    

First, Second and Third estates

Ancien Regime

The Enlightement

general terms patricians - aristocrat/nobleman plebeians - a commoner/low social origins

CAUSES OUTBREAK OF REVOLUTION

Factors : Enlightenment, absence of ...., weaknesses in France's Financial system, structure of French society (system of the estates 1st 2nd and 3rd nobility, church then everyone else)    

Cause : Enlightenment challenged ideas + views at the time such as religion and absolute monarchy reason + rational thought not superstition or tradition intellectuals - Philosophes such as Voltaire, Montesquieu, Jacques Rousseau attacked prejudice + superstition condemned the Catholic church for corruption  critical of the ancien regime but not exactly opposed either  Philosophes impact: ideas influenced those who would become revolutionaries by challenging one of the key pillars of order During the American war of independence French soldiers were exposed to ideas about liberty and democracy   Brittanica: Duignan, Brian. "Enlightenment". Encyclopedia Britannica, 14 Oct. 2021, https://www.britannica.com/event/Enlightenment-European-history. Accessed 21 August 2022. inspired by belief and possibility of a better world, outlined criticisms + programs of action/reform human reasoning could discover truths about the world, religion, politics which could improve humankind. Religious tolerance and the idea individuals should be free from coercion in personal lives knowledge, freedom, happiness

Cause: France's Financial system

Cause: Structure of French Society

Cause : The Monarchy   Louis XV 1715-74 Eric Tolman - causes of the French revolution hadn't the will or the talent of his predecessor, weakness was magnified by the growth of Salon culture in Paris and the ideas of the Enlightenment          - dynamic ideas swirling around in Salon's in france Crippling losses of 7yrs war (1756-63) and American war of independence (1775-83) + poor financial administration sent economy downhill             - absolutist France aiding war effort purely because it was against the British, however that same aid                bankrupt France and led to their own revolution 13yrs later transfer of power from nobility under Richelieu to intendants directly responsible to crown who registered the kings demands saw the economy stagnate magistrates of parliament were nobles who bought their offices so worked in self interest, their class, nobility and clergy because they wanted to maintain their position   Louis XVI G.L : lacked will, and intellect of predecessor, didn't know dangers of Calonne's plans, addicted to hunting and manual hobbies, eater and drinker, no fondness for society, amusments or balls, laughing stock of courtiers.                Character of this king and his queen in causes of the revolution must not be understated

Cause : The Ancien Regime Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "ancien régime". Encyclopedia Britannica, 8 Apr. 2019, https://www.britannica.com/event/ancien-regime. Accessed 21 August 2022. political and social system of france prior to the revolution Everyone was a subject of the King of France as well as a member of one of the three estates and province divided into the 1st,2nd and third estate of clergy, nobility and others no national citizenship Hodder education: old regieme was coined by revolutionaries to describe the regime of absolute monarchy, priveleged nobility, catholic church which was overthrown by the revolution Alpha history 1st estate as king's advisors, believed in kings divine right 2 throne, held monopolies over religious matters (state given), tax exemption 10% land and 150 million livre revenue  higher clergy - wealth from land rents, sinecures or graft, living good lives. 2/3rds of bishops and archbishops had noble titles criticisms and disengagement: late 18th century criticism + dissatisfaction of organized church was emphasised by enlightenment writings which questioned the basis of the church's power. Discontent with higher clergy of beliefs where they acted on personal interests rather than that of church + God late 1700s fewer people joining preisthoods/religious orders, and more people went to freemasonry, protestant religions etc. discontent with the lower clergy diversity of political and theological viewpoints in ranks parish priests: around 1/3rd, poorly paid by church       in many cahiers de doleance the lower clergy called for greater democracy + consultation in church decision making + review of the church's exemption from taxation reflected in the estates-general when 149 of deputies opted to join to the third estate  2 from the national assembly

Massolit

The French Revolution : Tom Stammers

The French Revolution, 1789 - 99 : Professor Dave Andress

HISTORIANS

Georges Lefebvre : 6 August 1874 – 28 August 1959

Simon Schama : 13 February 1945

Alfred Cobban : 24 May 1901 – 1 April 1968

Johnathan Smele

Francois - Rene de Chateaubriand COULD POSSIBLY BE A SOURCE sourced from: https://aleteia.org/2019/01/06/chateaubriand-the-author-who-wanted-to-return-france-to-its-christian-roots/ French writer, politician, diplomat + historian watched from abroad the havoc in France, essay tring to analyze the origins of the french revolution returned to france after coup d'etat Bonaparte 18th Brumaire    

Georges Lefebvre (1874 - 1959)

info about the historian : Deceased

general:     

Notes on the book : the coming of the french revolution   champions: Aristocracy, Bourgeoisie, Urban revolution, peasant revolution

sources on Georges Lefebvre ...Fifty Years on by Peter M. Jones (JSTOR)    major emphasis: Countryside peasantry participated in Revolution, not significantly influenced by Bourgeoise, peasants largely agreed on an anticapitalist way of thinking in the 1790s

Louis XIV : Richard Wilkinson

JSTOR

Causes of Revolution : American Journal of Sociology - University of Chicago press

Chapter 4 THE CRUCIBLE OF DEMOCRACY: THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

Feudalism and the French Revolution

The Consequences of Radical Reform: The French Revolution

possible sources???

Exemplar NEA: French revolution notes

the question: the structure of French society was one of the main causes of the French revolution 1789 ...to what extent do you agree with this     MAIN POINT Structure of the Parlements - argues that diversity was key for reformation Relationship of the Parlements with the King Parlement main obstacle in reformation of the monarchy (eventually led to economic crisis 1789) mentions Francois Furet as claiming Analysis of source: image : context, where it was published, analyses the valubility,content,    look at the photo : e.g. man holding the estates on his shoulder (content) : (context) represents third estate struggling under weight of 2nd estate, poor made to work for benifit of nobility.    analyses how valuable:  inequality in society, with more content       analyses the purpose of the source: unequal/unjust nature of french society :  analyses any limitations: no info on social background of author however still impactful critical/clear on treatment of first estate: analyses tone based upon content ( contrast btw peasant and first estate) : includes why that is is valuble based upon other evidence: gives info abt the evidence: including a piece of evidence written at the same time - goes into more depth about who they were and what they argued : how the evidence/context surrounding the source impacts its value ( nurtured radicalism + opp to nature of French Society) Georges Lefebvre : a historian that agrees that societal structure being the main cause.    looks at the book: the coming of the french revolution - his claims/arguments- French revolution had four phases; diversity of aims that were divided and contradictory             structure of France was aristocratic, land form of wealth    The student continues to write down the main arguments of Georges Lefebvre in various accounts of his No French revolution if the King had not called the estates General, priveleged groups which had the necessary means to start the revolution not working class/ bourgeoise, however after paralysing royal power the arisocracy brought a full scale revolution which began with the bourgeoise.    Analyses how convincing Lefebvre's argument is including context/ examples. Includes how respected his work is : by 1959 seen as the worlds foremost authority on the French Revolution, 1937 names Chair of the Hiso of the French revolution at Sorbonne - which shows what??? Marxist view with Souboul, no other suitible arguments for the french revolution in the 20th century were there at the time.  Shows the limitations of Lefebvre:     references Souboul Abbot to argue against Lefebvre's own argument ( I think Cobban argued the same thing that there was no history of the Bourgeoise at the time but check this) does not truly provide a long term cause towards the revolution - Les Paysans du Nord pendant La Revolution Francaise -> focused much on the pesantry for 20yrs. = limitation as he then overemphasised significance of the three estates + Importance of the Bourgeiouse.  Looked at what Lefebvre worked on, why that might be a limitation, backed it up with context. Analyses his perspective - Marxism - and why that might be seen as limiting, what type of view is a marxist view and how that might impact his intepretation.    looks at the positive side of his focus on pesantry however -> very knowlegable. References Cobban    Goes onto contrast Lefebvre with cobban -> had a somewhat critical view on Levebvre.        argues revolution was not a result of Bougeoisise overthrowing Feudalism, questions whether they were radical at all. Instead major aspect of the revolt was country against the town.    Peasant revolt of 1789 more realistically a manifestation of long term conflict county v town, not revolt of bourgeois against feudalism    analyses Cobban - convincing in interpretation of bourgeoisie + context, however interp lack of radical social change = evidence revolution had cheifly political roots, not uncommon for aims of revolutionaries to change throughout a revolution limitation of cobban -> challenges marxist view = book underemphasises important societal causes of the revolution. Aimed to disprove marxist view, own theories less effective context of period -> tried to challenge marxist view at a time where it hadn't been previously challenged, firstly views were dismissed and attacked but with new research was supported.  work supported? -> "father of revisionism", french professor at University College London, Visitng professor @ harvard university. Work held in high esteem by other professional historians.    The student keeps the essay going by adding the historian : Main Point, Source, Historian   reason for revolution : crown's poor finances and long term impact of failing taxation system = impossible for gov to recieve sufficient funds to escape debt    -tax exemptions = burden of taxation on peasantry, to which was unstable and unsuitable - led to huge amounts of borrowing - interest on debts part of gov expenditure - chaotic collection of taxes meant government didn't recieve enough to full tax that were levied, gives reason for this (could not be dismissed as bought their positions so their doings left unchecked) 'the problem was not a lack of wealth in France, but rather that many merchants saw trade as a means to an end.' Shennan france before the revolution - goal of them to get into second estate and be exempt from taxes, drained king's financial reasources - monarchy denied access to wealth + through outdated practices cont to peasantry poverty and allowed radicalization in 1789   reason for revolution: immediate causes Financial + economical 1786 Calonne told King verge of bankruptcy, 1788 expenditure totalled 629 livres vs income of 503 millino Debt inc 20%, <2% poor relief = crisis during economic crisis 1788 poor harvests spiralling into spring 1788 = economic crisis.      explains abt bread + impact of its inflation April 28th 1788 significance - economic issues pushing France to popular revolution - discontent taken advantage by radicalised revolutionaries bring crowds 2 save nat assembly, sved revolution from early end source analysis Arthur young, visiting france 1787, background on him explains what the source is, when it was, what it is about before presenting source analyses how valuble it is i.e. severity of situation 4 peasantry + dangers of economic crisis in catalysing a revolt,  valuble -> conditions 2 recruit desperate ppl to cause to save national assembly this source shows how.... which is important evidence that .... (struggling to maintain control) this source also reveals... student demonstrates the impact of food on catalysing into a mass revolt, using quotes from the source + analysing using contextual knowledge. Proves that the economic crisis had an immediate short term significance in the revolution analyses tone limitations of the source e.g. english not french so as strong rivaliry might wanted to highlight English superiority to emand therefore emphasised differences btwn French and English peasantry english also criticized French absolutism not under influence of absolutism like a Frenchman might be able to compare French peasantry in crisis to conditions faced by the English the fact supported theorists have used this article in their own work makes it extremely valuble   Final significant cause of the revolution: opposition to absolute monarchy two paragraphs on Louis XIV    began with evocation of the edict of nantes 1685 -> aided tensions ending toleration of French protestants = emigration, drove out skilled population that weakened the economy XIV -> approach to application inc France + England tensions = hostility to regieme.    Persecution of Protestants damaged prestige of church, enlightenment figure involvement Rights of Man + Citizen of 1789 -> religious uniformity not popular policy, French monarchy failed to appease the people XIV hatred of Duke of Orleans = rewrite will to restrict regent powers 1715 -> council to include illegitimate son Duke of Maine discusses events and outecome of this .... impaired monarchy's functioning + symbol begin of conflict btw Parlement and King resulting in revolution.   Louis XV focuses mainly on his Foreign Policy  7yrs war + outcomes Paris Treaty 1763  outecome         war drainage on financial reasources impact of foreign policy -> discredited the status of the absolute monarch = revolution uses historian example to prove how damaging Louis XV's reign was       also inc debt addittion, reiterates previous point to show continuity about King Parlement relationships Louis XVI weak monarch, judges = reliance on advisors, indecisiveness, vunerable weak king = weak social stability, king's authoiry holds estates together lack of political skill, impact on absolutist government links with war of independence + impact on france involvement in hipocrosy of French monarchy through intervening with American liberalists...right of man...dissapointment + resenment of authoritarian rule how his character impacted reform in terms of the tax system. mainly reguarding 1st and 2nd estates = lessen effects of economic crisis by inc money for poor relief would have prevented radicalization of the peasantry example of weak character -> Turgot, what he did and example of Kings unsuitability for authoritatian rule, weak character.     opposition to the monarchy enlightenment            impact on france...why? what they attacked.... gives example of important people during this time who attacked the church/ancien regime although philosophers not revoutionary themselves, effects of their teachings were 1780s englightenment impact + how this was shown enlightenment -> Cahiers  the nobles -> explains what this is and what was in it, what it influencedd     read about seven books websites including, alpha history, britannica, open edu etc.     

1685-1789 companion to french studies

issues of war, religion and the king 1670s/80s 1680s glory of Louis XIV began to dim Permanent move to Versailles 1682: Learning and the arts patronised, major censorship prevented outspoken criticism of the Ancien Regime.    Dangerous nobles showered with honorary offices and kept within the sight of the throne. Some aristocrats flocked to court for such patronage, some kept themselves within distance of the king. Despite the number of aristocrats at Versailles the nobles were still the most powerful men In the 1680s Louis XIV turned to trying to impose religious uniformity throughout the realm, which began in the 1670s from the Jesuit confessor and last of his mistresses who influenced his policies - Madame de Maintenon.        there was a problem with this however - Huegenots, Jansenists and claims of Rome, and the Quietists. Louis XIV restrictions on the Huguenots party in France by twisting clause of Edict of Nantes and increased their persecution in 1679.  1685 - Edict of Fontainebleau revoked the edict of nantes = no official protestants in France Jansenists b4 the frondes -> aquiried no. adherents from nobles of the robe = distrust by royal ministers.  antagonism btw the pope and Louis = came before greater persecution of Jansenists and huguenots 1680 onward monarchy downward path + opponents were more outspoken, w some local revolts.  15yrs after revocation:  > reform plans appeared from Huguenots + aristocrats          policies of the ministers did not seem to reap benefits + old society and institutions seemed preferable. Most of the aristocracy had the aims of seeking to revive the role of higher aristocracy, but some decentralization of power as some felt greater loyalty to their provinces than to the Paris government.  financial crisis of later reign not only caused by war: disruption of trade, severe economic depression, riots frequent inc among the Huguenots. Peasants died of starvation Bigger gap btw lower and upper levels Pontchartrain - minister - tried to solve the financial crisis by creating a new tax that befell all of the classes, but instead was a temporary levy, Capitation 1695, Tenth 1710. However the tax was avoided by the wealthy and the peasantry bore the extra load.  1693-4 terrible harvest = deaths, loss of vital taxpayers at a key moment lost 1/10th population. Trade prospered but during the War of the League of Augsburg ports declined and industry was affected by return of foreign craftsman 1697 Rijswijk treaty, good harvests, inc trade, red taxation Another war meant crown needed to gain + raise money, finance minister Chamillart + Desmarets tried to manipulate the coinage but harmed state’s credit Various reports of peasants living in caves + subsisting on roots(1676), but in 1709 innumerable deaths from hunger, reports of cannibalism amongst starving children. By 1715 country was impoverished Heir to the throne did 1711, Duc de Bourgogne king’s grandson also died (pinned hopes on for reform)               Vacancy to the throne gave possibilities of ambitious to follow their own careers   After Colbert’s death all of his efforts were scrapped, and most of King  wisest advisors had died during the last 15yrs of his reign which meant there was a gap for talent to rule the kingdom (Louis XV)       French Society in the 18th century   Peasants -> 4/5ths of 20 million Frenchmen 1700               Regency[BO2]  -> gained a little economic ground               Some good harvests and reduction in the pressure on land afforded by depopulation, which also compensated for the heavy burden of taxes and reduction in taxpayers               Large number of Frenchmen were back to work under peacetime conditions + inc overseas trading Marginal improvement to the lives of peasant Frenchmen in the 18th century, many were in work despite some losing their own land and having to serve (seignourlism)   Attitudes towards the government: suspicious when appt new ministers which either attack or a novel tax followed               Richer peasants were more likely to move out of towns because otherwise they’d have to pay extra tax contribution, despite poorer neighborhoods inhability to find money for their own share (legit could;nt pay taxes to fund the still ongoing financial crisiS) localities continued to defend their rights, which carried on through the preceding century, which made attempts to undermine them more regular - angered ministers of XV and XVI.    Intendant [BO3] mouthpiece of the king’s wishes, but also listened to local communities despite major refom being beyond their means/inclinations (influenced by the local complaints)   Centralized power had survived, the parliament, the estates and assemblies, sovereign courts and the municipalities and guilds. Higher Clergy + nobility at top of social pyramid despite composition change.               Inc in ranks 2 aristocrats due to Bourgeoise investing in office + land   After 1715 nobility keen to defend their privileges and traditional aristocratic life based on their landed wealth, which in turn lead to increased power + ranks.               The financier, and some other Bourgeois their aim was nobility of office or of the sword. Financiers married their daughters to poor but well off aristocratic houses and purchased nobility for their sons.               The old nobility saw this as a threat to the traditional hierarchy, so voiced their grievances through the high noblesse de robe or parliaments 2nd half of 18th century tried to exclude parvenus [BO4] from their ranks which didn’t turn out how they wanted, as money was still a valid qualification for higher outposts.   Nobles of the Robe and Nobles of the sword (d’epee’[BO5] ), formidable and many OLD aristocratic families saw position of the high robe as a desirable one.      Senior Robins good place in the social hierarchy and tried to expand their sphere of influence further by purchasing offices for relatives, investing in land, placing sons in more traditional noble callings of army and church.               = Nobles of the swords siding with the defenders of their privileges.   NOBLES: Hereditary, and has titles (barons, earls etc) ARISTOCRACY: kind of hereditary, in the sense that rich people have rich kids, tend to have more wealth, power and prestige GENTRY: people of good social position, class of people next below the nobility                 Reasons for this defence:   Attempts by the central government to tap into the wealth + red independence of the aristocracy   Royal ministers understood taxation was impossible while the nobility was exempt from direct taxation + held control over courts and provincial institutions People regarded the government as a threat, which was reinforced by the parlements. BUT WHY Nobles + Gentry split like third estate; some nobles still denied of ability to participate in retail trade = resemblance to peasants than grand seigneurs[BO6] . Urban Patriciate sometimes made cause with the nobility against the crown.               Guilds of merchants and craftsmen which were aided by Colbert rose to higher positions as fortunes of their members increased In some provincial centres e.g. Bordeaux, wealthy guild allied with robe + epee to hold all the offices of parlement and city, conversing in same salons as principal tax famers to inc wealth power and priveledge.    did not care if nobles at court disliked them for being 'provincial' - better security than favouritism at versaillles MY ANALYSIS OF THIS: YOU CAN SEE THE NOBLES AND THOSE OF HIGHER POWER BANDING TOGETHER TO BRING MORE POWER TO THEMSELEVES - 99   Argues aristocratic superiority remained, upper + middle closer together. Inc in wealth but French society the same/static  [BO1]Check  [BO2]Define what this is  [BO3]Define  [BO4]Person of humble origins who has gained wealth, influence or celebrity  [BO5]Check  [BO6]A man whose rank or position allows him to command others   Louis XV discontented parlementaries + aristocratic reformers established monarchy that used traditional advisers however ? agree abt the degree of pre-eminence (superiority) should be accorded to peerage (inc nobility)/parlement Peers, illustrious aristocratic families inc reforming writers + powerful political governors, influential favourites, powerless reactionaries, united in grievances against king Louis XIV,ministers.     king given children precedence over them (= parlement reverse decision), Loathed Louis' advisers which were either of low social origin or because peers always been royal councillors by right of birth, peerage deprived of all power (by those never favourited[were kept in impotent positions]) reassertion of their status as an elite group - aristocratic concililar system to pursue an enlightened course wanted to reverse the Colbertian mercantilism + bourgeois policies most clung to their exemptions bar the few enlightened who wanted universal taxes regent familiy - set aside kings will as could rely upon: nobles (1), parlement(2), Jansenets (3) 1. detested bastards + hoped for power of bureaucracy curbed 2. wanted to regain influence ( granted remonstrance b4 edicts + dismissed bastards) 3. loathed Madame de Maintenon and Jesuits (was given) parlement given back its right to remonstrance before registering edicts = confirmation of full power of the (01) regent and excluded the bastards.             (01) Implemented some proposals from reformers inc created 'polysynodie'             < suppressed 1718 which left the secretary of state in charge of central bureaucracy.             robe and epee suffered massive defeats, losing opportunity of gaining higher positions and pre-eminence             peers alienated members of ancient nobility = them welcomed members of parlement of paris government task : reform royal finances = Chambre de justice to extract money from the financiers, which ultimately left the wealthy unscathed The Regent: Scot John Law 1716, personal control of tax collection + hopefully trading with North America which collapsed in 1720 = greater ruin to some people but left few with fortunes             that left suspicion with the upper social levels, world of trade and credit was unsafe 1723 regent died, Duc de Bourbon took over gov until Fleury led office from 1726 until 1743 - Fleury (inc chanellow d'Aguesseau) foreign policy = drain on revenues subsided and chance for finances to recover - small war btw 1734-36 = profitable peace                   - Jansenists: 1713 Bull Unigenitus                      bull was an attack on the writings of Pasquier Quesnel, avoided offending Gallicans but Bishops + Parlementaries didn't wholly approve of it. Parlements dec register the edict instead demanding modifications to it. Fleury -> purged episcopate (the bishops of a church or region collectively) of undesirables,chose high aristocrats as bishops follow lead of versailles = parlements champion lower clergy Jansenism dangerous > wider/popular appea, Jansenists dispute lasted into middle years of century prosperity to Marseille,Dunkirk, La Rochelle, Nantes etc.        Bordeaux -> merchants built themselves handsome houses + commissioned public buildings for the centre a great city industry: regulations imposed by Colbert implemented rigidly, under directions of guilds + royal officials providing the link btw them, the paris government          control + restriction discouraged innovations in method, industry relied on labour of domestic workers internal commerce of france hampered by customs barriers esp cinq grosses fermes + other provinces. reform plans - unified customs area - successfully opp by principal tax famers + dues that req officials + collectors.   Peasantry - little changes/improved. population growth inc vagabonds/casual laborers. poorly cultivated fields. contrast of countryside poverty against wealth = attraction of the town 1737: disgraced foreign minister chauvelin who tried to prosecute the aggressive foreign policy factions growing in Paris and Versailles Fleury died 1743  Louis XV was less confident in his own powers of decision and failed to pursue consistent plants of action. Preferred to hunt and devote himself to his mistresses Court took form = more complaints over extravegance and waste.  ? on replacing existing revenue with universal tax -> derived from inefficient system of farmed indirect taxes w direct taxes which befell the poorer elements in the state.  War of Austrian succession 1741-48, new controller general Machault d'Arnouville -> introduced a new tax the twentieth on everybody to which the upper classes severly opposed.        Jansenists and jesuits also disputed. parlements: regained right to remonstrance (protest) 1715.  paris parlement 1717 obtained surpession of new and hated tax on all classes - the tenth, failed to opp John Law, was exiled from paris until his fall. Upset plans for small direct tax 1725. Involved in religious issues 1730s. 1733-1748 efforts to limit temp imposition of direct taxes           parlements now seen as defenders of fiscal and provincial liverites, w/o opinion in foreign affairs.                    Based their claims defending French traditions against evil acts of the royal ministers, greater support for them, Gallican views backing from lower clergy. greater support = chance of uprising from parlements if alienated, threat as serious as the gov's own ability to imprison or exile members of or whole parlements.  parlementaire view -> King would act in subject's best interests if he were properly counselled. Fleury's death - no supreme minister to govern/focus for hatred, however parlements and the estates were forced to register the edict (twentieth 1749); nobles refused to pay and no tax-collector had the power to change their minds.    Clergy protested with Jesuits, by members of the royal family + d'Argenson 1751 twentieth tax suspened (CHECK) based on clerical property. Machault accepted defeat in reformation of the royal finances.                          

Open University

generally agreed that the revolution stimulated a widening of expectations and imaginative awareness via the Enlightenment Enlightenment, liberty and revolution revolution brought a shift from Enlightenment to romanticism, opened up new horizons and possibilities, a belief society could be reconstituted, provoked scepticis and pessimism also revolutionaries recognised the break with the past by naming the social and political order before 1789 the 'old regime' (ancien regime) Cathrine the Great of Russia 1794 voiced 'that the aim of the philosophes was to overturn all thrones, and that the Encyclopedie was written with no other end in view than to destroy all kings and all religions' (Lentin 1985 p.269)    ? importance of Enlightenment in the Revolution -> some stress chance + personality in the revolution, or the pressure of events and forces    Social status and political influence depended on birth, hereditary title to land office (could also be purchased) and unearned income from land, right to peasants contributions in cash (tax), kind or labour (seignourism). liberty - from despotism, social exclusion and discrimination - and equality, fraternity Francois Furet -> appeal of L,E, and F were from the revolutions 'deepest motivaitng force: Hatred of the aristocracy' (1996,p.51)

Death of the Old Regime          2.1 The Bankrupt Monarch immediate cause -> Facing Bankruptcy Clergy + nobility did not pay direct tax so w/o consent of established orders to a reorganization of the tax burden to restore finances, gov cannot function attempted reforms by ministers (Turgot, Calonne, Nester, Brienne etc.)  which led to XVI needing to call upon the Estates-General 5th May 1789: Estates-General called upon at Versailles : Clergy, nobility + Third Estate    However if the Clergy and nobility voted as estates they could outvote the Third Estate by 2:1.  'The French Revolution was the process by which this vacuum was filled' (Doyle 2001, p36?) 2.2 The Third Estate as the voice of the nation Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyes - trained as a priest, assistant to a bishop. Wrote the pamphlet what is the third estate? published on Jan 1789 30k copies within months, time of hightened consciousness. What is his argument and significance? 2.2.1 discussion of 'what is the third estate' (Abbe Sieyes) methodical, concise, to the point. Asks three questions and 'see if these are the right answers', and tries to provide 'the supporting evidence' rather than express conclusions as views personal to himself his demonstrates them instead as statements of objective fact writing drew on Enlightenment concepts 4 familiar/educated reader Diderot article 'political authority' 1751 in Encydopedie, discussed terms/ideas mainstream in political thorught by 1789.                Argues sovreignty is from 'people' or the 'nation' not the monarchy. so his article takes many ideas from the Encyclopedie and extends and emphasises upon them = Sieyes further extending that tions also have an elected, representative legislative assembly to which was timely due o the American revolution summoning onstitutional convention 1787, and Louis XVI summoning the Estates-general. French people were to be 'represented' Sieyes then says that the nobility isnt in the nation, but a nation within a nation bc of its 'privileges and exemptions' -> to which the authors purpose is to isolate the nobility to the readers' eyes + expose to critical censure.             apt for 1789 = ?on roles of nobility + 3rd estate in estates general ref 'rights of man' + 'petitions' (cahiers de doleances), draws upon common background + strikes cord with readers in ref political terminology of Enlightenment. 'equality' also derived from the Encyclopedie 'Natural equality' 'with regard to...back in time a bit' -> Arguing that everything within the nobility is separate from the nation, that it doesn't derive its power from the people, and that it has its own interest separate to the nation He argues that the third estate itself consitutes the nation and therefore must be represented, whilst the nobility is overprivelaged and exclusive, over-represented in the Estates-General Tone -> confident, uncompromising, provocative (to a familiar audience or to those in the third estate wanting social and political mobility), demands on behalf of the third estate   Significance: 'consciousness-raising', radicalism within the argument captured mood of 648 reps of 3rd estate + inspured them to thumb their noses at the nobility 'aristocrats' word bc of him 1789 associated w undeserved priviledge resulted in demands to be heard as equals within the estate-generals June 20th -> Locked out = retreated to a nearby inside tennis court calling itself the National Assembly i+ 'tennis court oath', demaning a new written constitution excluding the nobility + clergy

chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://www.open.edu/openlearn/pluginfile.php/612183/mod_resource/content/1/thethirdestate.pdf Abbe Sieyes, What is the third Estate? 1789 Source: D. Williams (ed.), The Enlightenment, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1999, pp. 494–5, 498–9, 504–6.  1. What is the third estate? - everything 2. what has it been so far in the political order? - nothing 3. what does it ask to be? - something 4. What ministers have tried to do in the interests of the Third Estate, and what the privileged themselves propose to do for it; 5. What should have been done; 6. And finally, what remains to be done for the Third Estate so that it can take up the place that is its due [. . .]  'It is only too clear... that the nobility has privileges and exemptions it dares to call its rights...separate from the rights of the main body of citizens'    'private rights already make the nobility into a separate people' political rights - separate, own reps, separate corps of deputies          principle -> alien to the nation bc doesn't derive power from the people          objectives are private ones                ans 1. Because of this the Third estate contains everything proper to the nation = is a complete nation    'We do not get our freedom from privileges, but from our rights as citizens, rights which belong to everyone.'             aristocrats seek to keep ppl in state of oppression at expense of freedom if the estates-general is the intepreter of the general will + has legislative power, which makes it into a true aristocracy        every branch of executive fallen into hands of caste suppying church, law + army                nobles sticking together = reigning over the third estate 'it is a great mistake to think that France is governed as a monarchy...It is the court that reigns not the monarch'          court has made/unmade, appt ministers and dismissed them, filled posts and created them          court is head of vast aristocracy that overrules France, seizing onto everything + public life ppl used to distinguishing monarch from those who exercise power... which is defenceless due to the court summary: Third estate no true reps in Estates-General 2. therefore political rights are non-existent   People want to be something : 1. genuine reps in Estates-General drawn from its own order                                                                      which w/o an influence at least equal to the priveleged orders would result in an opression via the other orders with interests hostile to its own                                                            2: no. reps equal to that of the two orders put together                                                             3: Votes to be counted by heads and not orders, otherwise the equality would be an illusion if each chamber has its own separate vote                                                                              second demand of the third estate                                           That the number of its deputies be equal to that of the two privileged orders. 'Although we do not know precisely what the respective tax contribution of the different orders is, the Third Estate obviously bears more than half of the burden' 'The Third Estate, which had been reduced to nothing, has regained, through its industry, part of what had been stolen from it by the offence [committed] against it by those who were stronger' argues the priveledged orders fear the third order having equality or influence = declare it to be unconstitutional feel deeply they need to retain the veto over anything that could be against their influence https://revolution.chnm.org/d/280/ ->Description + actual text?? Sieyes born 1748, educated at a Jesuit school, he was French, 1789 elected to delegate to the Estates-General from Paris, spokesman of the third estate took part in the Coup d'etat of 18 Brumaire https://alphahistory.com/frenchrevolution/sieyes-what-is-the-third-estate/ the convocation of the Estates-General led to a spiralization of pamphlets, essays speculating about the convocation. Some demanding equality + greater representation (third estate) it reached out to the lower classes inc the third estate. Rhetorical questions that were imperative  Sieyes barely middle class, made a list 1770 of books he wished to read if ever he had the money to buy them, featuring many Englihtened texts 1788, government censorship was also relaxed (would equal more pundits, pamphlets and ideologies to be spread, which probably resulted in an influx of revolutionary ideas) ob 1788 wrote 'Essay on the privileges' attacking presence of privilege and exemptions in France's society + political system became one of the most influential texts in the beginning of the French revolution, reminded them of the pain they'd been through inc their lack of representation. The demands/objectives Sieyes proposed within the text also helped shape the decisions that led to the third estate creating their own National Assembly

2.3 fall of bastille 14/07/1789 was medieval fortress + prison of Paris. Catastrophic harvest 1788 provoked food riots inc Paris 2 maintain order XVI called troops in2 paris, but some thought he was going to try and dissemble the national Assembly = rallying its supporters          milita of 48k - the national guard  w commander Marquis de Lafayette (died 1834) Bastille prev held people of enlightenment e.g. Voltaire + Diderot fall symbolised unstoppable might of the revolution which stood against tyranny, oppression + injustice symbolised the passing of the old regime 2.4 enlightened reformism - dismantling the Old Regime national assembly -> constituent Assembly who could virtually make any new laws, with Kings power only being able to delay not override them abolition of the 'feudal system in its entirety' + privilege in France, abolition of church tithes, all rents,taxes, services due from peasants to noble land owners, sale of offices, end to exemption from direct taxation which inc the church and nobility = social equality, equality b4 law, equal liability to taxation, equality of opportunity 2.5 declaration of the rights of man article 1: reaffirmed principle of equality, inc within the declaration freedom from arbitary arrest + imprisonment, freedom of opinion and speech, right to a voice in levying of taxes revolutionary : sovereignty residing in the nation, oct 1789 absolute monarchy abolished + replaced by a constitutinal monarchy how far do you see in it the influence of the Enlightenment? What was revolutionary about it? you see it changing religion - France was predominantly catholic, where the church had much influence, therefore by changing it to anyone having their own opinion that was revolutionary, the enlightenment wanted to crush the church for its corruption and the Declaration of rights and man certainly targeted it through equal taxation and how the sovereignty resides in the nation where 'no body of men...can exercise authority which does not expressly derive therefrom' similar themes to the American revolution + Encyclopedie, from the enlightenment and the petitions of the caihers de doleances. revolutionary bc for first time in European history they were formally incorp + proclaimed in document of states, where the rights of the citizens were declared inalienable, which citizens had no power to change or be deprived of them by subsequent legislation. Written in the constitution -> similar to the American declaration of independence?

Declaration of the rights of man

1. men are born and remain free and equal in respect of their rights ; social distinctions can only be based on public unity 3. the fundamental source of all sovereignty resides in the nation; no body of men, no individual can exercise an authority which does not expressly derive therefrom 10. No man must be penalised for his opinions, even his religious opinions, provided that their expression does not disturb the public order established by the law.  13. A common tax is essential for the upkeep of the public force and for the costs of administration; it must be levied equally on the citizens in accordance with their capacity to pay.   

7.1 the enlightenment, the French revolution, Britain and Europe how far did the philosophes intend to bring about a revolution? - philosophes, if not reformers themselves, pointed the way towards reform, convinced their mission was for the benefit of their fellow human beings - Encyclopedie intended to encourage a more informed, questioning + critical attitude towards existing institutions - expression of lessening suffering, cruelty, injustice etc and human rights and natural equality limitations of their ideas : human beings treated with 'humanity' however not that social/economic distinctions should be abolished more moral than political philosophes hailed enlightenemnt as precursor of the reovlution... neither called for the overthrow of the old regime   in my opinion whilst the philosophes certainly aided questioning, along with a critical attitude towards existing institutions which might have led to ... other events happening at the time such as instability within the financial system, caused more dissafection with current social and political standards that fuelled desire towards reform and revolution.