Chapter 7

Chapter 7

1. Encoding

   • Involves forming a memory code
   • Structural
     • Emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus
   • Phonemic
     • Emphasizes what a word sounds like
   • Semantic
     • Emphasizes the meaning of verbal input
     • Elaboration
       • Linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding
     • Dual-Coding Theory
       • Memory is enhanced by forming semantic and visual codes
   • Self-Referent
     • Involves deciding how or whether information is personally relevant

2. Storage

   • Involves maintaining encoded information in memory over time

3. Retrieval

   • Involves recovering information from memory stores
   • Tip-of-the-tongue Phenomenon
     • The temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it's just out of reach
   • Forgetting
     • Forgetting Curve
       • Graphs retention and forgetting over time
     • Measures of Forgetting
       • Retention
         • The proportion of material retained (Remembered)
         • Recall
           • Measure of retention requires subjects to produce information on their own without any cues
         • Recognition
           • Measure of retention requires subjects to select previously learned information from an array of options
         • Relearning
           • Measure of retention requires subjects to memorize information a second time to determine how much time or how many practice trials are saved by having learned it before
     • Decay Theory
       • Proposes that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time
     • Interference Theory
       • Retroactive
         • Occurs when new information impairs the retention of previously learned information
       • Proposes that people forget because of competition from other material
       • Proactive
         • Occurs when previously learned information interferes with the retention of new information
     • Amnesia
       • Retrograde
         • The loss of memories for events that occurred prior to the onset
       • Anterograde
         • The loss of memories for events that occur after onset
   • Encoding Specificity Principle
     • The value of a retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds to the memory code

4. Attention

   • Involves focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events

5. Levels of Processing Theory

   • Proposes that deeper levels of processing result in longer-lasting memory codes

6. Sensory Memory

   • Preserves information in its original sensory form for a brief time

7. Short-Term Memory (STM)

   • A limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for up to about 20 seconds
   • Rehearsal
     • The process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the information
   • Chunk
     • A group of familiar stimuli stored as a single unit
   • Working Memory
     • A limited-capacity storage system that temporarily maintains and stores information by providing an interface between perception, memory, and action

8. Long-Term Memory (LTM)

   • An unlimited-capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time
   • Flashbulb Memories
     • Unusually vivid and detailed recollections of momentous events

9. Organization of Memory

   • Clustering
     • The tendency to remember similar or related items in groups
   • Conceptual Hierarchy
     • A multi-level classification system based on common properties among items
   • Schemas
     • An organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience with the object or event
   • Semantic Networks
     • Consist of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts
   • Parallel distributed processing (PDP)
     • Models assume that cognitive processes depend on patterns of activation in highly interconnected computational networks that resemble neural networks

10. Reconstructing Memories

    • The Misinformation Effect
      • Occurs when participants recall of an event they witnessed is altered by introducing misleading post-event information
      • Reality Monitoring
        • The process of deciding whether memories are based on external sources or internal sources
      • Source Monitoring
        • Involves making attributions about the origins of memories
        • Source Monitoring Error
          • Occurs when a memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source

11. Destination Memory

    • Involves recalling to whom one has told what

12. Transfer-appropriate Processing

    • Occurs when the initial processing of information is similar to the type of processing required by the subsequent measure of retention

13. Repression

    • Refers to keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious

14. Implicit Memory

    • Apparent when retention is exhibited on a task that does not require intentional remembering

15. Explicit Memory

    • Involves intentional recollection of previous events

16. Declarative Memorry

    • Handles factual info

17. Procedural Memory

    • Houses memory for actions, skills, operations, and conditioned responses

18. Episodic Memory

    • Made up of chronological recollections of personal experiences

19. Semantic Memory System

    • Contains general knowledge that is not tied to the time when the information was learned

20. Prospective Memory

    • Remembering to perform actions in the future

21. Retrolspective Memory

    • Involves remembering events from the past or previously learned information