Biodiversity-Jeffries

Biodiversity-Jeffries

1. Biodiversity is threatened

   • with threatened and reduced biodiversity, genetic variation is reduced. 
   • Humans
     • humans dont realize the many economic resources ecosystems provide 
     • Climate Change
       • Causes rising sea levels
       • Melts Ice caps
       • Destroys ecosystems
         • Humans are destroying ecosystems-through solutions humans can bring back the diversity that ecosystems are losing. 
     • Deforestation
     • Overexplotation
     • Monocropping/other agriculture problems
   • Solutions
     • Education
     • Land preservation
     • Legal action
     • individual change

2. Ecosystems

   • Fragile
   • Provide economic resources
   • Genetic Variation
     • Natural Selection
       • Survival based on reproduction of different individuals
       • Darwins 4 postulates
         • individual variation
         • Heretibility
         • over reproduction
         • difference between generations
       • currency = fitness
         • combination of survivorship and reproduction.  It can be considered a measure of the “fit” between the organism and its environment. 
       • Modes of Nat Selection
         • Disruptive
         • Directional
         • Stabilizing
       • Microevolution
     • genotype vs phenotype
       • genotype is the makeup and phenotype is the outer appearance of that gene
       • gene patterns
         • Incomplete dominance
         • Codominance
         • Sex linked traits
         • Multiple Alleles
     • Hardy Weinberg Equilibrium
       • Assumes a population is not evolving. 4 characteristics 
       • Large breeding ground
         • No immigration or emigration
         • no mutations
       • Random Mating
       • p^2+2pq+q^2=1
         • you only know q^2
     • Sexual Selection
       • Intrasexual
         • Competition with other genders
       • Intersexual
         • Female choice
         • sexual dimorphism
     • Evolution
       • All of these things would not fit HWE
       • Genetic Drift
         • Bottleneck effect
           • Reduction in population size due to drastic disturbance 
         • Founder effect
           • ndividuals from a large population colonize new areas
       • Selection
       • Non random mating
       • mutations
       • Gene Flow
     • Macrroevolution
       • Speciation Process
         • WTF is a species
           • A distinct group of populations that is thought to be evolutionarily independent of other populations. Reproductively isolated populations are evolutionarily independent
           • Biological species concept
             • 1 or more populations whose members interbreed under natural conditions & produce fertile offspring Requires reproductive isolation.
             • Reproductive Isolation!
               • Pre-Zygotic Isolalation
                 • Temporal
                   • isolation as a function of time.
                 • Behavioral
                   • Courtship behavior differs. between individuals of two populations. 
                 • Habitat
                   • diff habitats making rep. not possible 
                 • Mechanical
                   • anatomical incompatibility
                 • Gametic Barriers
                   • Broadcast spawning Prevention of wrong spermEgg combo (2 diff species):species specific Protein allows sperm to penetrate eggs
               • Post-Zygotic Isolation
                 • Reduced hybrid viability
                   • lower potential to survive for organisms whose parents have incompatible genetics, mostly because these parents mated despite being different species
                 • Hybrid sterility
                   • donkey + horse = mule=sterile
         • gene flow interruption
           • Allopatric
             • Different homelands  dispersal/colonization  vicariance
           • Sympatric
             • ecological isolation  polyploidy
       • Adaptive Radiation
       • Ecological species concept
       • Morphospecies concept

3. Evolutionary Relationships

   • Need evidence to support!
   • Phylogeny
     • These two things work together to prove evolutionary relationships
     • Synamorphy
       • a trait that exists in a certain group of organisms but exists in no others (due to common ancestry)
     • Monophyletic group
       • an ancestral species and ALL of its descendants (based on synapomorphy)
     • Nodes
       • Common ancestor 
     • Paraphaletic group
       • Doesn't include common ancestor-based off characters
   • Fossils
     • any trace of an organism that lived in the past -e.x. bones, branches, shells, tracks, impressions & dung
     • Has limitations
       • Fossilization is an extremely low probability event  and it is nonrandom meaning not all organisms are equally likely to fossilize.
     • Relative dating
   • Mass Extinctions
     • Create fossils

4. Evolutionary Diversity

   • Bacteria
     • First ones, prokaryotes have been around most of the time
     • Prokaryotes
       • Why Small? Diffusion limits cell size in all organismsGases and food molecules in the air or water must be passed in and out of the cellRate of diffusion depends on SANutrient usage and heat loss depends on V
       • Metabolic Diversity
         • Cellular Respiration
           • Fermentation
             • a few eukaryotes and lots of prokaryotes unlike cell respiration, the initial carbon compound is NOT fully oxidized to CO2. (e.g. final carbon compound is lactic acid) NO electron acceptor needed (so can happen where no oxygen)makes much less ATPOrganic matter gets broken down to reenter the carbon cycle that wouldn’t without fermentors.
           • Anaerobic cellular respiration
             • cell respiration (resp. without oxygen) –  many prokaryotes but no eukaryote cell respiration so the initial carbon compound is fully oxidized to CO2. (unlike fermentation) Alternative electron acceptor needed:(makes less ATP than aerobic cell respiration but more than fermentation)
         • Oxidizing and reducing molecules
           • Reduced molecules store energy which is released (along with electrons) when they are oxidized; they can serve as electron donors.   For example you learned that in your cells reduced molecules are oxidized when cells break down reduced carbon molecules (food). Released energy captured in useful, energy rich molecules like ATP.
         • Photosynthesis
       • Oxygenic photosynthesis
         • oxidation of water reduction of CO2
       • Anoxygenic photosynthesis
         • Not done by eukaryotes Where there is light but no oxygen Water is not used as an electron donor so O2 is not produced (why called anoxygenic photosynthesis) Alternative electron donor: hydrogen sulfide: H2S (used by purple sulfur bacteria) Does make carbohydrates like oxygenic photosynthesis
   • Eukarya
     • Characteristics unique to eukaryotes that contributes to their success Larger Cell Size Cytoskeleton and inner membrane system [Internal organization] Organelles [Compartmentalization] Nucleus and linear DNA [Genomic organization] Sexual reproduction Multicellularity 
     • feed on larger prey (phagocytosis)
     • Multicellular
       • Simple
         • ATTACHED cells with SIMILAR functions that DO NOT depend on each other to survive 
         • Green Algae
       • Complex
         • Attached cells with DIFFERENT functions that DEPEND ON EACH OTHER TO SURVIVE
         • Animals
         • Advantages
           • Also. has disadvantages-How do you keep things moving?
           • Avoid predation
           • Cell differentiation
     • First appeared 2bya
     • Origin of the Eukaryotic Cell
       • Infolding of the plasma membrane forming the nucleus and endomembrane system (i.e. ER, golgi apparatus, vesicles)
       • Endosymbiosis
         • Theory that mitochondria and chloroplasts were prokaryotes engulfed and came to live within larger cells
   • Archaea
     • *bacteria too Lives in places many other things don't

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