Human Growth and Development

Página 1

Sigmund Freud

-father of psychoanalysis

-psychoanalysis is the most comprehensive theory of personality and therapy ever devised

-stage theorist

-psychosexual theory focuses on how kid's parents manage their child's sexual feelings which ultimately make up an adult personality.

-in Freudian theory, instincts are emphasized

-He emphasized the importance of the id

-psychosexual stages (5)

-oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital

-maturarionist

-Like Erikson, believed that each developmental stage needed to be resolved before an individual could move on to the next stage

-While Kohlberg proposed three levels of morality, Freud felt morality developed from the superego.

Birth to 1 year / Oral Stage (sucking)

1-3 years / Anal Stage (pooping)

** 3-6 years / Phallic Stage (sexual pleasure/touching oneself)

6-11 years / Latency Stage (sexual desires die down)

Adolescence/ Genital (sexual desires pick back up)

There are three parts of the human personality, which emerge at different stages during the 5 stage process:

ID- Instinctual drive to fulfill basic human needs (starts at Oral Stage). It is the largest portion of the mind, and is the source of basic biological needs and desires.

Ego- Secondary Thought Process (Thinking twice before doing something). Starts at Anal Stage. This is the conscious, rational part of the personality, emerging in early infancy to redirect the id’s impulses so they are discharged in acceptable ways.

Superego- Influenced by societal norms. Starts at the Phallic Stage. Between the age of 3-6, this develops as parents insist that children conform to the values of society.

Eros- refers to Freud's concept of "life instinct"

Thanatos- refers to e self-destructive death instinct

Regression- refers to clients who return to an earlier stage of development

Manifest- content described the dream material as it is presented to the dreamer

Latent- content (which is seen as far more important by the Freudians) refers to the hidden meaning of the dream

Attachment is a major factor in his theory, which evolves primarily during the oral age (birth-1 year). This makes sense because attachment and bonding takes place early in life.

Latency is the developmental sage which "least" emphasizes sexuality. During this stage, sexual interests are replaced by social interests.

-Latency is the only Freudian developmental stage which is not primarily psychosexual in nature. It occurs roughly between the ages of 6 and 12.

Oedipus Complex

-is the stage in which fantasies of sexual relations with the opposite-sex parent occurs

-occurs during the phallic stage

-could be called the phallic-oedipal stage

-Freud chose the name based on the Greek myth in which Oedipus, the mythical king of Thebes, unknowingly killed his father and marries his mother.

Electra Complex

-the female child fantasizes about sexual elations with the parent of the opposite sex.

-Freud went on to hypothesize that eventually the child identifies with he parent of the same sex.

-This leads to internalization of parental values, and thus conscience or superego is born.

According to Freud, if a child is severely traumatized, he or she may become fixated at a given psychosexual stage.

Fixation implies hat the individual is unable to go from one developmental stage to the next. In other words, the child literally becomes stuck (or fixated) in a stage where he or she feels safe. Therefore, when life becomes too traumatic, emotional development can come to a screeching halt, although physical and cognitive processes may continue at a normal pace.

Freud felt that frustration and anxiety are normal when passing through a developmental stage, but when they become too powerful emotional growth will literally stop and the person becomes stuck (fixated).

A client who has a problem with alcoholism and excessive smoking would be considered an oral character.

Página 2

Erik Erikson

-stage theorist

-psychosocial theory

-psychosocial stages

-ego psychologist

-focus on social relationships, thus are described as psychosocial

-theory is said to be epigenetic in nature

-maturationist

-Like Freud, believed that each developmental stage needed to be resolved before an individual could move on to the next stage

An ego psychologist; The only psychoanalyst who created a developmental theory which encompasses the entire life span. Erikson was a Neo-Freudian who expanded the picture of development at each stage. This theory emphasizes that in addition to mediating between id impulses and superego demands, the ego makes a positive contribution to development, acquiring attitudes and skills that make the individual an active, contributing member of society. A basic psychosocial conflict, which is resolved along a continuum from positive to negative, determines healthy or maladaptive outcomes at each stage. Erikson’s first five stages parallel Freud’s stages, but Erikson added three adult stages.

Basic Trust versus Mistrust – pg. 184

Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt – pg. 184

Initiative versus Guilt – pg. 256

Industry versus Inferiority – pg. 330

Identity versus Role Confusion – pg. 402

Intimacy versus Isolation – pg. 469-470

Generativity versus Stagnation – pg. 532-535

Integrity versus Despair – pg. 604

Ego psychologists: believe in man's power of reasoning to control behavior

Erikson stressed the importance of ego functions

The term identity crisis comes from Erikson's work

-Erikson felt that in an attempt to find out who they really are, adolescents will experiment with various roles.

-Trust versus Mistrust corresponds to Freud's initial oral-sensory stage (birth-1 year)

-Each of Erikson's stages re described using bipolar or opposing tendencies.

-Each stage is seen as a psychosocial crisis or a turning point. He did not imply that the person either totally succeeds or fails. Instead, says that the individual leans toward a given alternative (e.g., integrity versus despair).

-The final stage edginess at about age 60

-An individual who has mastered all stages feels a sense of integrity in the sense that his or her life has been worthwhile.

-Midlife crisis occurs during generatively versus stagnation (aka, self-absorption) stage

-generativity: refers to the ability to be productive and happy by looking outside one's self and being concerned with other people.

Generativity, in Erikson's middle age stages (ages 35-60) refers to the ability to do creative work or raise a family, is the opposite of stagnation, and the productive ability to create a career, family, and leisure time.

-Intimacy versus isolation (age 23-34) is the stage that focuses heavily on sharing your life with another person.

-Someone who fails to do well in this stage may conclude that he or she can depend o no one but the self.

-The fear of death is greatest during middle age. In Erikson's stages, the individual would accept the finality of life better during the final state than in the middle age years.

-In Erikson's Integrity versus Despair, a person who can look back on his or her life with few regrets feels ego-integrity.

-According the Erikson, successful resolution of this stage results in the belief that one's life served a purpose.

Página 3

Jean Piaget

-Swiss Child Psychologist

-Stages are qualitative

-Intellectual/Cognitive Factors

-His methods can be classified as informal because his findings were often derived from observing his own children.

-Notion that developmental stages occur naturally

-Piaget felt that teachers should lecture less, as children in concrete operations learn best via their own actions and experimentation

-Structuralist who believes stage changes are qualitative

-A structuralist point of view is that each stage is a at of making sense out of the world.

The belief that children’s mind forms and modifies psychological structures so they achieve a better fit with external reality. As the brain develops and children’s experiences expand, they move through four broad stages, each characterized by qualitatively distinct ways of thinking. The theory is both psychoanalytic and behavioristic. During each stage, all aspects of cognition develop in an integrated fashion, changing in a similar way at about the same time. Humans gradually move into each stage. In educational settings, it is used to argue a child’s readiness level. Readiness concerns when certain concepts should be taught. Problem solving skills cannot be taught, but must be discovered.

He was adamant that the order of the stages remains the same for any culture, although the age of the individual could vary. -felt that teachers should lecture less, as children in concrete operations learn best via their own actions and experimentation

Sensorimotor Stage / Birth-2 years

Preoperational Stage / 2-7 years

Concrete Operational Stage / 7-12 years

Formal Operational Stage / 11/12-16 years

There are 5 main characteristics of the preoperational stage:

Language development

Egocentrism

Animism

Centration/Conservation

Symbolic Representation

Conservation refers to the notion that a substance's weight, mass, and volume remain the same even if it changes its shape. A child masters this in the concrete operational stage (7-11 years old).

Piaget and David Elkins both reported that mass is the first and most easily understood concept. The mastery of weight is next, and finally the notion of volume can be comprehended.

Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years old)

-Counting- counting mentally; as in without matching something up to something else physically.

-Conservation- refers to volume or mass; a child that has not mastered conservation is not thinking in a very flexible manner.

Example 1: A child is shown a pie cut into 2 pieces. Next, the same pie is cut into 10 pieces. If the child has not mastered conservation he or she will say that the pie that is now cut into 10 pieces is bigger than when it was cut into just two pieces. A child who has mastered conservation will know the pie has not changed in volume or mass.

Example: A tall skinny pitcher of water is emptied into a small squatty pitcher. A child indicates that she feels the small pitcher has less water. The child has not yet mastered conservation.

-Reversibility- coins the notion that one can undo an action, hence an object can return to its initial shape.

*Ambidextrous- refers to an individual's ability to use both hands equally well to perform tasks

Pre-Operational Stage (2-7 years)

-Includes the acquisition of a symbolic schema

Egocentrism- conveys the fact that the child cannot view the world from the vantage point of someone else.

Example: A 6-year old child says, "The rain is following me."

Centration- characterized by focusing on a key feature of a given object while not noticing the rest of it

Example: A child who focuses exclusively on a clown's red nose but ignores his or her other features would be illustrating this Piagetian concept

Example: A preschool child's concept of causality is said to be animistic. This means the child attributes human characteristics to inanimate objects. Thus, the child may fantasize that an automobile or a rock is talking to him.

Formal Operational Stage

-Abstract thinking emerges

-Problems can be solved using deduction

-Final Stage

-The child can think in terms of multiple hypotheses.

-Questions can be answered using more than one explanation

-Abstract concepts of time like "what life was like 500 years ago?" or distance, such as "How far is 600 miles?" can only be comprehended via abstract thinking.

-Piaget felt a large number of individuals never really reach this stage. Hence, the difficulty of subjects like algebra, physics, and geometry.

Sensorimotor Stage

-Reflexes play the greatest role in this stage

-The schema of permanency and constancy of objects occurs in this stage

Object Permanence

Representational Though

Permanency

Constancy

Schema

Assimilation- the act of taking in new information

Assimilation results in accommodation, which is a modification of the child's cognitive structures to deal with the new information.

The balance between assimilation and accommodation is called equilibration.

Equilibration is the balance between what one takes in (assimilation) and that which is changed (accommodation).

Equilibrium is another word for equilibration. It occurs when the child achieves a balance.

When new information is presented, which the child's current cognitive structures, known as schemas cannot process, a condition referred to as "disequilibrium" sets in. Therefore, the child changes the schemas to accommodate the novel information, and equilibration or equilibrium is mastered.

Piagetian conceptualization of moral development; He suggested two major stages:

1) Heteronomous Stage (occurs between ages of 4 and 7)

-The child views rules as absolutes that result in punishment

2) Autonomous Stage (begins at 10 years old)

-Characterized by the child's perception that rules are relative and can be altered or changed

Página 4

Lawrence Kohlberg

-Cognitive Moral Reasoning

-Leading theorist in moral development

-His theory is said to be epigenetic in nature.

-Kohlberg suggested there are three levels of morality

-Lists 6 stages of moral development which fall into 3 levels

-Expanded on Piaget's conceptualization of moral development.

-Epigenetic is a biological term borrowed from embryology.

-This principle states that each stage emerges from the one before it

-The process follows a given order and is systematic.

Kohlberg's Theory has Three Levels of Moral Development:

1) Pre-conventional

2) Conventional

3) Post-conventional (AKA; the Personal Integrity or Morality of Self-Accepted Principles level

*Each level can be broken down further into two stages.

The Heinz Story

-One method used by Kohlberg to assess the level and stage of moral development in an individual

STORY INSERTED!!!!

-The individual's reason for the decision (rather than the decision itself) allowed Kohlberg to evaluate the person's stage of moral development.

-The reason utilized to solve a moral dilemma such as the Heinz story could be used to assess moral development.

-Kohlberg's stages and levels are said to apply to all persons and not merely to those living in the United States

Pre-conventional Level

-The child responds to consequences

-The reward and punishment greatly influence the behavior

-In this stage, an individual's moral behavior is guided by consequences

In the initial stage, morality is guided by a fear of punishment.

-The consequences stage (called premoral), a slap on the behind is more important than societal expectations and the law.

Stage 1

Punishment versus Obedience Orientation- Operates on the premise that rewards guide morals

Stage 2

-Hedonism occurs in stage 2

-Here the child says to himself, "If I'm nice, others will be nice to me and I'll get what I want."

The statement, "Bad behavior is punished, good behavior is not," is most closely associated with Kohlberg's premoral stage at the preconventional level.

Conventional Level

-The individual wants to meet the standards of the family, society, and even the nation

-This level is characterized by a desire to live up to society's expectations and a desire to conform

-The individual wishes to conform to the roles in society so that authority and social order can prevail.

-The "good boy/good girl orientation" the person is concerns with approbation and the ability to please others in order to achieve recognition. This orientation occurs in stage 3.

Post-Conventional Level

-The highest level of morality, yet many never reach this level

-Kohlberg t that many people never reach the final level of post-conventional or self-accepted morality.

-A person who reaches this level is concerned with the universal, ethical principles of justice, dignity, and equality of human rights

-Kohlberg 's research indicated that under 40% of his middle-class urban males had reached the post-conventional level.

-This level is achieved when the common good of society is a key issue

-Those said to have reached this level in history are: Ghandi, Martin Luther King Jr., and Socrates

-The individual has self-imposed morals and ethics

A person who lives by his or her individual conscience and universal ethical principles has, according to Kohlberg, reached the highest stage of moral development and is in the post-conventional level of self-accepted moral principles.

Página 5

Lev Vygotsky

-pioneered the ZPD

Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory emphasizes that children live in rich social and cultural contexts that affect the way their cognitive world is structured. Vygotsky believed that complex mental activities have their origins in social interaction. Through joint activities with more mature members of their society, children master activities and think in ways that have meaning in their culture. The zone of proximal development (ZPD) refers to a range of tasks too difficult for the child to do alone but possible with the help of more skilled partners. This form of learning is known as scaffolding. Scaffolding promotes learning at all ages. Page 167 in Life Development Book.

He disagreed with Piaget's notion that developmental stages take place naturally. He insisted that the stages unfold due to educational intervention.

The zone of proximal development describes the difference between a child's performance without a teacher versus that which he or she is capable of with an instructor.

Página 6

John B. Watson

-Father of American behaviorism and coined the term behaviorism in 1912

Página 7

Carl Jung

-The father of analytic psychology

Página 8

Abraham Maslow

-Epigenetic in nature

-Humanistic Psychologist

-Hierarchy of Needs

-Researched the dilemma of Self-actualization

-Pioneer in third force or humanistic psychology

-Coined the term positive psychology-refers to the study of human strengths such as joy, wisdom, altruism, the ability to love, happiness, and wisdom.

-Worked with people who have transcended the so-called average or normal existence. The "psychology of the average".

-Maslow rejected both analytic psychology and behaviorism; he felt they dehumanized men and women.

-Maslow's theory has dubbed "humanistic psychology" or a "third force" psychology.

-He felt the person first needs to satisfy immediate or basic needs such as food and water. Next, safety and security must be dealt with. Next, a need for love, affection, and belonging emerges. The highest level is termed self-actualization, meaning the person becomes all he or she can be.

-Some tests may refer to higher-order needs (i.e., at need which is not physiological) as "metaneeds."

Suggested he following hierarchy of needs:

-survival

-security

-safety

-love

-self-esteem

-self-actualization

The assumption is that lower-order needs must be fulfilled before the individual can be concerned with higher-order needs.

RS in the counseling field means pious and spiritual. Addressing RS issues in counseling has increased in the last several years. In fact, the number of counselors who consider themselves spiritual (though not necessarily religious) also climbing. RS factors are often examined by counselors who are attempting o integrate the practice of "positive psychology" into their work.

Hierarchy of Needs

-postulates lower-order physiological safety needs and higher-order needs, such as self-actualization

-Maslow researched the dilemma of self-actualization by interviewing the best people he could find who escaped "the psychology of the average"

Maslow's lower-order needs, such as physiological and safety needs would be used and is the focus of a counselor who is working with a family who just lost everything in a fire.

Página 9

Alfred Adler

-founder of individual psychology, which stresses the inferiority complex

Organ Inferiority

Página 10

John Bowlby

-bonding and attachment

-Saw bonding and attachment as having survival value, or what is often called adaptive significance

-Insisted that in order to lead a normal social life the child must bond with an adult before the age of 3

-If the bond is severed at an early age, it is known as "object loss" and this is said to be the breeding ground for abnormal behavior, or what is often called psychopathology.

-Mahler called the child's absolute dependence on the female caretaker "symbiosis"

-Difficulties in the symbiotic relationship can result in adult psychosis.

In the monkey experiment performed by Harlow, Bowlby would say that in humans the parents act as a "releaser stimulus" to elicit relief from hunger and tension through holding.

He asserted that conduct disorders and other forms of psychopathology can result from inadequate attachment and bonding in early childhood

The sequence of object loss, which goes from protest to despair to detachment, best describes the work of Bowlby

Página 11

Arnold Gesell

-pioneer in terms of using a one-way mirror for observing children

-maturationist- feels that development is primarily determined via genetics/heredity; hence, a child must be ready before he or she can accept a certain level of education (e.g., kindergarten).

Página 12

Harry Harlow

Harlow is well known for his work with maternal deprivation and isolation in rhesus monkeys.

He was most concerned with maternal deprivation.

Monkeys placed in isolation developed autistic abnormal behavior.

When these monkeys were placed in cages with normally reared monkeys, some remission of the dysfunctional behavior was noted.

Believed that attachment was an innate tendency and not one which is learned

Evidence that this is true in man comes from the works of Rene Spitz noted that children reared impersonal institutions (and hence experienced maternal deprivation between the sixth and eighth month of life) cried more, experienced difficult sleeping, and had more health-related difficulties.

Spitz called this "anaclitic depression." These infants would ultimately experience great difficulty forming close relationships.

In the experiments with baby monkeys, the baby monkey was more likely to cling to a terry cloth mother surrogate than a wire surrogate mother.

-They preferred the terry cloth mothers to wire mothers even though the wire mothers were equipped to dispense milk.

-Harlow concluded hat "contact comfort" is important in the development of the infant's attachment to his or her mother.

-A 165 day experiment revealed that the monkeys were spending an average of 1 1/2 hours per day with the wire mother and 16 hours with the terry cloth mother.

-Bowlby, mentioned earlier, would say that in humans the parents act as a "releaser stimulus" to elicit relief from hunger and tension through holding.

In the famous experiment, frightened monkeys raised via cloth and wire mothers ran over and clung to the cloth and wire surrogate mothers.

Demonstrated that animals placed in isolation during the first few months of life appeared to be abnormal and autistic

-Autistic means extremely withdrawnnd isolated

Página 13

Maccoby and Jacklin

-They reviewed literature and found very few differences that could be attributed to genetics and biological factors regarding the statement "males are better than females when performing mathematic calculations."

-Superiority of males in the area of mathematics, however was not significant until high school or perhaps college.

-Girls who excelled in science and math often identified with their fathers and were encouraged to value initiative and were given independence. Thus, the major impetus for sex-role differences may come from child-rearing patterns rather than bodily chemistry.

Página 14

B. F. Skinner

-Prime mover in the behavioristic psychology movement

-Behaviorists, like Skinner, tend to emphasize the power of environment

Página 15

Gibson

-researched the matter of depth perception in children by utilizing a visual cliff

Página 16

John Locke

Página 17

Kurt Goldstein

Página 18

Konrad Lorenz

-ethology

-imprinting

Ethology refers to the study of animals' behavior in their natural environment

Likely to say that aggression is an inborn tendency

Imprinting is an instinct in which a newborn will follow a moving object.

Some behavioral scientists refer to instinctual behavior as "species-specific," meaning that the behavioral trait occurs in every member of the species. The behavior is unlearned and universal.

Most likely to say that aggression is an inborn tendency. He compared us to the wolf and baboon and claimed that we are naturally aggressive.

According to Lorenz, aggressiveness is part of our evolution and was necessary for survival.

His solution for this was for us to utilize catharsis and get our anger out, using methods such as competitive sports.

Página 19

William Glasser

Página 20

R.J. Havinghurst

Página 21

Daniel Levinson

-Wrote Seasons of a Man's Life and Seasons of a Woman's Life

-Viewed the midlife crisis as somewhat positive pointing out that individuals who do not face it may indeed stagnate or become stale during their fifties. In other words, avoiding or bypassing the crisis can lead to lack of vitality in later years.

According to his Yale research, eighty percent of the men in the study experienced moderate to severe midlife crises. An "age 30 crisis" occurs in men when they feel it will soon be too late to make later changes

Página 22

Joseph Wolpe

-pioneered the technique of systematic desensitization , a behavioristic technique used to ameliorate phobic reactions.

Página 23

Arnold Lazarus

Página 24

Eric Berne

Father of Transactional Analysis

Put Freudian lingo in everyday language and spoke of the Parent ego state , which is roughly equivalent to the superego

Parent ego state is filled with the: should, oughts, and musts which often guide our morality.

Página 25

Carl Rogers

-created nondirective counseling, later calling it client-centered counseling, and more recently, person-centered counseling.

Página 26

Frank Parsons

-the father of guidance

-Set up centers to help individuals in search of work

Página 27

Robert Kegan

-speaks of a "holding environment" in counseling in which the client can make meaning in the face of a crisis and can find new direction

-encourages "meaning making"

-Suggests six stages of life span development:

-incorporative

-impulsive

-imperial

-interpersonal

-institutional

-interindividual

Página 28

William Perry

-Perry is known for his ideas related to adult cognitive development; especially college students.

-Known or his ideas related o adult cognitive development; especially regarding college students.

-Perry stresses a concept known as dualistic thinking, common to teens in which things are conceptualized as good or bad or right and wrong.

-Dualism has also been referred to as black and white thinking with virtually no ambiguity.

-As they enter adulthood and move into relativitic

Página 29

Harry Stack Sullivan

-postulated the stages of infancy, childhood, the juvenile era, preadolescence, early adolescence, d late adolescence

-his theory is known as the psychiatry of interpersonal relations

-his theory is similar to Erikson's theory in that biological determination is seen as less important than interpersonal issues and the sociocultural demands of society.

Página 30

Conformity-

-changing one's behavior in order to fit in or go along with the people around you

-seems to peak in the early teens

-a 13-year-old male middle school student is more likely to conform than a 57-year-old female stockbroker

Página 31

Suicide-

-In adolescents, males commit suicide more often than females, but females attempt suicide more often

-Males commit suicide more often than females in ALL age brackets

-One theory is that males are more successful in killing themselves because they use firearms whereas females rely on less lethal methods.

-The vast majority of those who have killed themselves have communicated the intent to do so in some manner.

-In the general population, suicide rates tend to increase with age.

-Suicide occurs often, after a client's depression begins to lift

-About 30,000 suicides occur in the United States each year

-In black females, the suicide rate is 2/100,000

-Personality measures are not good predictors of suicide or for that matter of suicide attempts

Página 32

Boys and Girls

Comparing boys to girls, girls grow up to smile more, use more feeling words by age 2, and are better able to read people without verbal cues at any age.

-Boys on the other hand are more physically active and aggressive, probably due to androgen hormones. Boys also seem to possess better visual-perceptual skills.

In terms of parenting young children, boys are punished more than girls.

The tendency for adult females in the United States to wear high heels is best explained by sex role socialization

In general, girls possess better verbal skills than boys

In general, boys possess better visual-perceptual skills and are more active and aggressive than girls

Two brothers begin screaming at each other during a family counseling session. The term best describes the phenomenon sibling rivalry

Marriage satisfaction often decreases with parenthood and is lowest prior to a child leaving home.

-The divorce rate in the United States is of nearly 50%, yet people still desire to marry.

Página 33

Stanley Coopersmith

-Found that child-rearing methods seem to have a tremendous impact n self-esteem.

-He conducted a study hat indicated, surprisingly enough, children with high self-esteem were punished just as often as kids with low self-esteem.

-The children with high self-esteem, however, were provided with a clear understanding of what was morally right and wrong. This was no usually the case with children with low self-esteem.

-The children with high self-esteem actually had more rules than he kids with low self-esteem. When the child with high self-esteem was punished, the emphasis was on the behavior being bad and not the child.

-Parents of children with high self-esteem were more democratic in the sense that they would listen to the child's arguments and then explain the purpose of the rules.

-His study utilized middle-class boys, ages 10 to 12.

-Girls routinely display more caregiver behavior

Página 34

Nature or Nurture

-When developmental theorists speak of this, they really mean h much heredity or environment interact to influence development.

-Nature: refers o heredity and genetic makeup

-Nurture: refers to the environment

Today, most theorists shy away from an extremist position and admit that both factors play a major role.

Página 35

Stage Theorists

-assume that qualitative changes between stages occur

-differences can often be measured

Página 36

Development

-is a continuous process which begins at conception

-developmental psychologists are fond of looking at prenatal influences (i.e, smoking or alcohol consumption) that affect the fetus before birth.

-It is cephalocaudal, which means head to foot.

-The head of the fetus develops earlier than the legs.

-The term refers to bodily proportions between the head and tail

Heredity

-Assumes the normal person has 23 pairs of chromosomes

-Assumes that heredity characteristics are transmitted by chromosomes

-Assumes genes are composed of DNA hold a genetic code

Heritability: the portion of a trait that can be explained via genetic factors.

Critical Period

-Makes imprinting possible

-Signifies a special time when a behavior must be learned or the behavior won't be learned at all

A critical period is a time when an organism is susceptible to a specific developmental process. A critical period marks the importance of heredity and environment on development.

For example: In humans, language acquisition is thought to begin at around age 2 and ends at about age 14.

Genetic factors cause Down Syndrome which produces mental retardation. Persons with Down syndrome, which is the result of a chromosomal abnormality (an additional chromosome or two), causes brain damage which results in an IQ of 50 or less (100 is normal). Down syndrome also has been called "mongolism," which was inspired by the slanted, almost Asiatic eyes.

Other genetic and hereditary conditions include: Phenylketonuria (PKU), which is an amino acid metabolic difficulty that causes retardation unless the baby is placed on a special diet.

Klinefelter's syndrome is characterized by a male shows no masculinity at puberty. Turner's syndrome occurs when a female has no gonads or sex chromosomes.

When development comes to a halt, counselors say the client suffers from fixation. Fixation is primarily an analytic concept.

Página 37

Desensitization

-refers to behavior therapy techniques that help to ameliorate anxiety reactions

Covert- refers to any psychological process which cannot be directly observed

Vivo- means the client is exposed to an actual situation which might prove frightful or difficult

Página 38

Quantitative Changes

-Theorists who believe that development merely consists of quantitative changes are referred to as empiricists

An empiricist view of development would be behavioristic

A theorist who views developmental changes as quantitative is said to be an empiricist. The antithesis of this position holds that developmental strides are qualitative.

-The name given to this position is organicism

Página 39

An expert who has reviewed the literature on TV and violence would conclude that watching violence tends to make children more aggressive.

-Some researchers emphasize that the more we see, hear, and rad about violence, the less it bothers us, therefore we behave in a violent manner.

Página 40

Instinctual

-Instincts are innate behaviors that do not need to be practiced or learned. Instincts are not learned behavioral responses.

-A counselor who utilizes the term instinctual technically means behavior that manifests itself in all normal members of a given species.

Página 41

Counseling

Elementary school counseling and guidance services are a fairly new development which did not begin to gain momentum until the 1960s

-Research related to elementary school counselors indicates that these counselors are effective, do make a difference in children's lives, and more counselors should be employed

When development comes to a halt, counselors say that the client suffers from fixation.

Most experts in the field of counseling agree that no one theory completely explains developmental processes; thus, counselors ought to be familiar with all the major theories

Structuralists view each stage as a way of making sense of the world.

Cognitive-behavioral applies to counselors who emphasize thought processes in terms of their impact on emotions as well as behavioristic strategies (e.g., reinforcement or homework assignments).

A phobia is a known fear, while anxiety is a reaction where someone is unaware of the source of fear.

Play therapy and art therapy is often preferable to traditional counseling and therapy because cultural differences have less impact on these types of intervention.

Anxiety (generalized anxiety refers to fear, dread, or apprehension without being able to pinpoint the exact reason for the feeling. Anxiety is in contrast with phobia, in which the client can pinpoint the cause or sources of fear (e.g., riding in an elevator).

Psychosis refers to a break from reality which can include hallucinations, delusions, and thought disorders.

Senile psychosis is a condition brought on via old age. At times, the term will be used in a looser sense to imply a loss of memory.

Página 42

There are behavioral, structural, and maturational theories of development.

The maturational viewpoint utilizes the plant growth analogy, in which the mind is seen as being driven by instincts while the environment provides nourishment, thus placing limits on development.

Maturational counselors allow clients to work through early conflicts. Counselors allow the client to work through the old painful material. The counselor acts almost like a perfect nonjudgmental parent. Thus, the client can explore the situation in a safe, therapeutic relationship. Psychoanalysts and Psychodynamic therapists fall into this category.

Ritualistic behaviors, which are common to all members of a species are known as fixed-action patterns (FAP) elicited by sign stimuli.

Fixed-action patterns (FAP) will result whenever a releaser in the environment is present. The action, or the sequence of behavior, will not vary.

Hysteria is said to occur when an individual displays an organic symptom (e.g., blindness, paralysis, or deafness), yet no physiological causes are evident.

Pica is a condition in which a person wishes to eat items that are not food (i.e., the items has no nutritional value), such as consuming a pencil or perhaps a watch band.

Anal Retentive personality is stingy.

counterbalancing refers to an experimental process in which a researcher varies the order of conditions to eliminate irrelevant variables.

Balance Theory suggests that individuals avoid inconsistent or incompatible beliefs. In other words, people prefer consistent beliefs. This is sometimes known as the tendency to maintain "cognitive consistency."

ABA Design is experimental and research lingo. The A stands for the baseline, which is the behavior before an experimental or treatment procedure is introduced. B is the treatment. After the treatment is implemented the occurrence of A (the behavior in question) is measured to see if a change is evident.

Página 43

Martin E. P. Seligman

"learned helplessness" syndrome- a pattern in which a person is exposed to situations that he or she is truly powerless to change and then begins to believe her or she has no control over the environment. Such a person can become easily depressed.

Seligman experimentally induced learned helplessness in dogs via giving them electric shocks while placed in a harness. These dogs, unlike untrained dogs, did not even move.

Página 44

Albert Ellis

-New York clinical psychologist who developed a form of treatment known as Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), which teaches clients to think in a more scientific and logical manner.

He was originally trained as an analyst and is a very political writer.