Psychology core sudies

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Individual differences area

Classic study: Gould

Background:

Yerkes wanted to prove that psychology could be just as scientific as physics by focusing on quantitative data

Key terms:

Culturally biased - Bias towards people from a particular culture, in that people from other cultures may not understand the research in the same way

Illiterate - unable to read or write

Yerkes' aims:

To prove that psychology can be as rigorous a science as physics, focusing on numbers and quantification

To develop the field of mental testing

Yerkes' research method:

Quasi experiment as the IV is ethnic origin and the DV that is measured is the average mental age

Experimental design:

Independent measures

Yerkes' sample:

1.75 million men

All army recruits from the first world war

All in America

Yerkes' sampling method:

Opportunity sampling

Design of Yerkes' metal tests and problems:

Army Alpha - Written examination given to literate recruits. Has 8 parts and took less than an hour. Could be given to large groups. Included number sequences, unscrambling sentences, analogies and multiple choice questions

Army Beta - Tests designed for illiterate men and men who failed the Army Alpha. Included 7 parts and took less than an hour, it could also be given to a large group. It included maze running, cube counting, finding the next symbol and translating numbers into symbols.

Individual Examination - If they failed the Army Beta test they would be called for an individual examination

The problems were; it was ethnocentric as it was culturally biased towards Americans, it doesn't measure all types of intelligence, it could be measuring other things like upbringing, living circumstances. There was no control as to what counted as literate and illiterate, the people who did the Beta test would only be considered for lesser jobs, some people may have never held a pencil before, in the interviews an immediate judgement on their race and speech could have been made.

Administering the tests and problems:

Only to be given Beta test if you are illiterate

Given a chance on Beta if failed Alpha test

Given individual examination if failed Beta test

In many camps the protocols weren't followed, if queues for the Beta were too long they would send them to the Alpha test (due to too many illiterate people), some people didn't get the chance to do the Beta test if they failed the Alpha because of the pressure on the Beta test, no camps ever bothered with the individual examinations.

Findings from the tests and problems:

The average mental age of a white American male was 13 (just above moron)

The darker people of southern Europe and the Slavs of eastern Europe were found to be less intelligent than the fair people of the western and northern Europe. Russian = 11.34, Italian = 11.01, Polish = 10.74

Black Americans lay at the bottom of the scale with a metal age of 10.41

Because the procedures were not followed correctly lots of people got 0 on the Alpha test and never did the Beta so lowered the average.

Different Ethnicities did worse due to the ethnocentrism of the test

How the findings were applied and problems:

Helped inform a political policy to restrict immigration (The Immigration restriction Act, 1924)

Many Jewish migrants couldn't enter the US which lead to them dying at the hands of the Nazi

6 million southern, central and eastern Europeans were barred between 1924 and 1939

Conclusions (Yerkes and Gould):

Yerkes'

Intelligence is an innate quality with a hereditary basis. It is possible to grade individuals by the colour of their skin.

The average man of most nations could be considered a 'moron'.

Mental testing of this kind is a valid, secientific technique with wider implications for society

Gould's

The mental tests were not accurate

Ideas can have consequences every bit as tragic as deliberate and direct attempts to do harm

Gould's research method:

A review

Gould has summarised the finding from a different researcher's findings

Ethics:

Cant withdraw as they are in the army

Deception and debrief not kept

The people administering the tests were not competent as they didn't know how to do it correctly

Consent - they would have been ordered to do it by senior army people

They were not protected from harm as they wouldn't be put in good jobs if failed Alpha

It was not confidential as names, ages and schooling were published

However they had signed up to join the army and it was before ethical issues were even considered

Reliability:

Internal - It was clear how the procedure was supposed to be followed however it varied from camp to camp.

External - The sample of 1.75 million people made it so that there was a consistent effect

Validity:

The test was more likely to measure schooling or how long they had lived in America, not their intelligence.

Ethnocentrism:

The questions were all based on American themes so it was very culturally biased

It can be seen as not ethnocentric as the sample came from a wide range of backgrounds

How in the individual differences area:

Reviewing an attempt to develop a way of measuring how intelligence differs between people

How links to key theme of measuring differences:

Tells us it is difficult to work in this area as they need to be sensitive of cultural bias

Links to debates:

Nature/Nurture - Yerkes thought that intelligence is nature and can be measurable however Gould's critique that they were not appropriate tests shows its down the nurture

Socially sensitive research - suggesting that ethnicity affects intelligence and passing the Immigration Restriction Act was tragic

Contemporary study: Hancock et al

Key terms:

Crime of passion - not premeditated

Instrumental crime - planned (psychopaths usually do this type)

PCL-R - psychopathy checklist revised

Psychopath - a personality disorder characterised by persistent antisocial behaviour, impaired empathy and remorse, and bold, dis-inhibited, egotistical traits.

WMatrix - corpus analysis

DAL - dictonary of affect in language

Disfluencies - e.g. uh, um

Aims:

Psychopaths will use more explanatory and casually framed language concerning their criminal actions, with a relatively high level of usage of subordinating conjunctions (e.g. because, so that)

Their narratives about their crimes would contain more semantic references to physiological and material needs such as food, drink, clothing, sex and resources, and fewer semantic categories that reflect higher level needs such as love, family and spirituality.

Psychopaths would produce fewer and less intense emotional words, produce more disfluencies, and use language that reflects psychological distancing from, and a lack of current personal responsibility, for the crime.

Research Method:

Quasi experiment

The IV is is they have psychopathic tendencies and the DV is the use of their language

Experimental design:

Independent measures

Sample:

52 men in Canadian prison

All committed for murder

Mean age of 28.9

Sampling method:

Self selected as volunteered to take part

Procedure:

Stage 1

Split into 2 groups; psychopaths and non-psychopaths using PCL-R. Asked 20 questions scored from 0 to 2 for a maximum score of 20.

For 39 participants they assessments were conducted by trained prison psychologists. The other 13 had the researcher complete them.

The clinical cut off for psychopathy is 30 but in this study they used 35+

There were 14 psychopaths with a mean age of 39.71 and a mean amount of time since the murder of 11.87.

There were 38 non-psychopaths with a mean age of 39.91 and a mean amount of time since the murder of 9.82.

Stage 2

Interview lead by senior graduate students and one research student, all who were blind to the psychopathic scores.

The purpose of the study was explained verbally to the participant who had to describe their homicide in as much detail as possible

Interviews were taped and lasted around 25 minutes. They were typed into transcripts.

Stage 3

Wmatrix - the speech by the psychopaths was brought together and analysed in comparison to the combined language of the non-psychopaths. Tow features were used; the ability to tag parts of speech (e.g. nouns, verbs, adjectives) and to analyse semantic concepts (e.g. language and communication, time).

Dictionary of Affect in Language - Assess the emotional properties of language. Each participants transcript was analysed individually with a score being given for the pleasantness and the intensity of emotional language in each statement.

Findings:

Hypothesis 1 (instrumental language analysis)

The psychopaths produced significantly more subordinating conjunctions that non-psychopaths.

Psychopaths = 1.82%

Non-psychopaths = 1.54%

Hypothesis 2 (hierarchy of needs analysis)

Psychopaths uses more words connected to low level needs compared to the non-psychopaths

The non-psychopaths used more words connected to family and religion than the psychopaths

Hypothesis 3 (emotional expression in language)

Emotional content - Examination of the DAL scores revealed no significant difference between the two groups. However when analysed by interpersonal and affective deficits there was a negative correlation found between that score and the pleasantness and intensity of emotional language used by participants.

Disfluencies - Psychopaths contained approximately 33% more language disfluencies than non-psychopaths.

Psychological distancing - psychopaths used a significantly higher percentage of verbs in the past tense and the non-psychopaths used a higher percentage of verbs in present tense and articles, e.g. a, the.

Conclusions:

The language psychopaths use to describe emotional events is different from non-psychopaths

Ethics:

Deception, consent, competence and confidentiality were kept.

Protection from harm was broken as it may have cause emotional harm

Reliability:

Internal - double blind procedure and a step by step interview process but they used 25 as the mark for psychopathy so they might not all have been psychopaths

External - only 14 psychopaths so might no suggest a consistent effect

Validity:

Internal - It does tell us about their use of language due to the Wmatrix and DAL software (no researcher bias)

External - Can't be generalised from as they were all Canadian males who had murdered someone

Ethnocentrism:

Not ethnocentric as everywhere has psychopaths

Ethnocentric as people in different countries use language in different ways

How in individual differences area:

It investigates how different peoples language is different

How links to key theme of measuring differences:

The difference between the psychopaths language and the non-psychopaths use of language

Links to debate:

Freewill/determinism - the characteristic of being a psychopath is beyond their control however the fact that they can manipulate others shows some control over their behaviour

Socially sensitive research - given the potential applications the research should be valid and reliable. The findings should not be misapplied e.g. not giving someone a job due to disfluencies in their language and speaking in the past tense.

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Biological Area

Classic study: Blakemore and Cooper

Background:

Hirsch and Spinelli at Stanford Uni reared kittens with one eye viewing vertical stripes and the other horizontal stripes and found that most of the neurones of the visual cortex were monocularly driven. This suggested that the neurones of the visual cortex showed plasticity and developed according

Aims:

To investigate how being raised in a visually restrictive environment effects visual brain development in cats

Compare the behavioural consequences of raising kittens seeing only horizontal or vertical stripes

investigate the neurophysiological effects on neurons in kittens visual cortex (brain

Research Method:

Lab experiment

The IV is if they say horizontal or vertical stripes and the DV is the behaviours witnessed

Experimental design:

Independent measures

Sample:

Kittens from birth to 1 year

Unknown sample size, at least 2

Procedure:

For the first two weeks they were in a completely dark room

From two weeks until 5 months they were placed in a cylinder with horizontal or vertical stripes for 5 hours a day

When not in the cylinder they were in complete darkness

The cylinder was 2 meters high by 46cm diameter with a clear platform half way up. There was a lid with a spotlight and the cat wore a wide black collar to limit seeing its own body.

Findings:

Behavioural results

The initial reactions when they were introduced to a well-lit were that they showed visual deficits, had no startle response when a hand/object was thrust towards them, they had no visual placing or a fear response when reaching the end of objects

After 10 hours of exposure to well-lit surroundings the deficits disappeared so they began to show visual placing, startle responses and would jump easily from objects to the floor however their visual tracking of objects was clumsy, they tried to reach objects well out of reach and they bumped into things while exploring.

The cats could not see vertical lines if raised horizontally and vice versa. The tests were:

1) A sheet of perspex with thick black and white lines was shown to the cats. They wouldn't respond if it was in the 'wrong' orientation but would have a startle response if the 'right' orientation was presented

2) A rod was shaken in front of them to see if they would catch/chase it. if it was presented horizontally to two kittens of different conditions only the one raised in the horizontally raised group would catch it. This was reversed vertically and the vertically raised cats would catch it.

Neurophysiological results

A normal cat would have neurons for both horizontal and vertical orientations.

Kittens raised horizontally had no neurones in the vertical orientation.

Kittens raised vertically had no neurones in the horizontal orientation.

Conclusions:

Evidently the visual experience of these animals in early life has modified their brains, and there are profound perceptual consequences

The development of the brain, at least in a visual sense, responds to the environment that it has experienced. Cells that begun with a preferred vertical orientation changed to a horizontal preference when the environment was only horizontal

Ethics:

Defended ethically by only having 2 cats, the cats not being upset by the environment, it not being on humans, they were sedated and paralysed so unaware of the pain and it informs us of brain plasticity so the ends justifies the means

Criticised because the cats were in a small space in the cylinder, the dark environment would be unpleasant for the cat, they would be isolated in the cylinder for 5 hours a day and the long term deficits

Reliability:

Internal - Lots of controls, e.g. size of cylinder, time frame in dark and when in cylinder and the same tests used after the 5 months so it is replicable

External - Only two kittens used for the neurophysiological tests so can't check for consistency

Validity:

Internal - can be confident the results are caused by the restricted visual environment the kittens were raised in.

External - It does not resemble a real life situation as they were kept in the dark and limited to stripes which would not normally happen. There were only 2 kittens so cannot generalise to all cats or other species

Ethnocentrism:

As it is from comparative psychology and studied cats it is not relevant to the discussion of ethnocentrism

How in biological area:

It investigates the effect of the environment on the developing brain in cats

How links to key theme of brain plasticy:

It demonstrated that in the developing brains of cats the visual neurones will change their preferred orientation such that a cat raised in a horizontal environment will develop horizontal vision and vice versa

Links to debate:

Nature/nurture - Nature provided the kittens with neurons with a preferred orientation, nurture change the brain development and the orientation of their vision

Psychology as a science - Controlled lab experiment so replicable, no views obstructed evidence so objective, in theory possible to prove falw

Contemporary study: Maguire

Background:

Hippocampus is known to be involved with navigation

Previous research using birds and animals had found that animals who migrate/hide food have larger hippocampi

Brain differences are known to exist between humans, e.g. musicians and non-musicians

Aims:

To investigate the differences in the brain, especially in the hippocampus, in London taxi drivers, to see if varying hippocampal volumes are observed compared to a control

To further investigate the functions of the hippocampus in spatial memory

Research Method:

Quasi experiment

IV is if they are a London taxi driver which is already occurring

Correlation

Compares the length of time as a taxi driver with the volume of the hippocampus

Snapshot

Only one brain scan per participant, with a range if taxi driving experience

Experimental design:

Independent measures

Sample:

Taxi drivers

16 right handed male London taxi driver, aged 32 to 62 (mean of 44)

All licensed for at least 1.5 years (mean of 14.3, range of 1.5-42)

Average time spent on 'the knowledge' was 2 years

All had healthy general medical, neurological and physiological profiles

Control group

50 right handed males, aged 32-62, who had been scanned for the MRI database at the Wellcome Department of Cognitive Neurology, UCL

Selected so no females, no left-handers, no under 32, no over 62 and no one with health problems

Procedure:

Scanned using structural MRI to investigate the anatomy of the brain

Voxel-based morphometry - measures the grey matter volume and indicates general differences between the two conditions. A voxel is a 3D measurement that allows the computer program to calculate the volume of the area so the grey matter in the MRI scan

Pixel counting - Carried out on taxi drivers and 16 matches from the control group. A pixel is a 2D measure of an area, it is possible to calculate differences by pixel counting slices of the scan. In this case is was split into 26 slices but only 24 focused on the hippocampus. Six were in the posterior, 12 in the main body and 6 in the anterior.

Findings:

VBM analysis - in taxi drivers there was an increase in grey matter in only two areas of the brain; the left and right hippocampi. There was an increase of grey matter bilaterally on the posterior but a decrease bilaterally in the anterior

Pixel counting analysis - No difference in overall volume but regionally specific differences. In the anterior the non-taxi drivers had higher hippocampal volume in the right than left. In the hippocampus body the taxi drivers showed no difference in overall volume but analysis side by side showed the non-taxi drivers had more volume in the right. In the posterior the taxi drivers had a higher volume compared to non-taxi drivers.

Correlational analysis - There is a positive correlation between the right posterior hippocampus and time spent as a taxi driver. There was a negative correlation between time spent as a taxi driver and the volume of the anterior hippocampus.

Conclusions:

There are regionally specific structural differences between the hippocampus of London taxi drivers and the control group.

Correlational analysis showed how this was due to the demanding environmental situation.

Ethics:

They kept consent, confidentiality, deception and withdrawal

There may have been some potential harm

Reliability:

Internal - Easy replicable due to the controlled nature

External - Only 16 taxi drivers which is a small sample to suggest a consistent effect

Validity:

Internal - The pixel counter was blind and the computer did VBM so there is no researcher bias

External - Not very generalisable to women, left-handers, taxi drivers in other places

Ethnocentrism:

Ethnocentric as biased towards British culture, also other cultures may use spatial awareness differently

Not ethnocentric as everyone has a brain

How in biological area:

It studies the function of the hippocampus which is a biological factor

How links to key theme of brain plasticity:

How much the hippocampus can change and adapt due to a persons environment

Links to debate:

Nature/Nurture - Nurture as the environment of being a black cab driver lead to brain plasticity in the hippocampi

Usefulness of research - Furthers our understanding of how the brain works, focusing on plasticity. MRI scan was fairly new but lead to finding out the different regions in the brain.

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Social Area

Classic study: Piliavin et al

Background:

Kitty Genovese was stabbed to death over 35 minutes om the middle of the night. 38 people heard or saw what happened but no one called the police until it was too late

Darley and Latané - p's overheard someone having an epileptic seizure either alone or in a group of one or four unseen others. 80% of alone participants reported the seizure but it dropped to 62% when one person was present and 31% when four were.

Key terms:

Bystander apathy - not responding to a situation in which someone needs help when others are present

Diffusion of responsibility - where responsibility to deal with a situation is shared equally amount those present

Aims:

Would it make a difference if he was perceived to be drunk or ill?

Would it make a difference if he was black or white?

Would it make a difference to the behaviour of those witnessing the emergency if someone 'modelled' helping behaviour in front of them?

Would there be a relationship between levels off helping behaviour and the number of people witnessing the emergency?

Research Method:

Field experiment

Experimental design:

Independent measures

Sample:

Passengers found on the train

4450 men and women

Mean number of people per carriage was 43

45% were black and 55% were white passengers

Sampling method:

Opportunity sampling

Procedure:

A non-stop train journey of 7.5 minutes between 59th and 125th street on the New York 8th Avenue Independent subway in either direction

103 trials took place between April and June 1968, between 11am and 3pm (6-8 trials a day)

4 teams of 4 (male victim, male model, 2 female observers). 3 teams had a white victim, one had a black victim.

All four board the train, in 70 seconds the victim collapses and stares at the ceiling until helped

Victim

male

26-35 years

3 white, 1 black

All dressed in eisenhouer jacket, old trousers and no tie

In the critical area

65 'ill' trials

38 'drunk' trials

Model

male

24-29 years

Wore informal clothing

Waiting in critical area or adjacent area

Helped 'early' at 70 seconds after collapsing or 'late' at 150 seconds

Help given: raised to sitting position and stayed with him

Observers

Female

Sat in adjacent area

They sneakily noted comments and tried to elicit responses to what was happening

Observer 1 - looked at race, sex and location of people in the critical area, the total number in the carriage, the number who offered help and their race, location in carriage, sex

Observer 2 - looked at race, sex and location of people in the adjacent area, the time of the 1st helper and the time if they stepped in after the model offered help

Findings:

Quantitative

62/65 spontaneously helped on ill trials with an average time of 5 seconds

19/38 spontaneously helped on drink trials with an average time of 109 seconds

34 people left the critical area when the help took a long time

Of the 81 trials where help was given 90% of helpers were male and 60% had more than one helper

Victims were helped quicker when there were 7 or more males in the critical area

Slightly more same race helping with the drunk trials

Qualitative

"I never saw this kind of thing before - I don't know where to look"

"It's for men to help him"

"You feel so bad you don't know what to do"

"I wish I could help him - I'm not strong enough"

Conclusions:

An individual who appears to be ill is more likely to receive help than someone who is drunk

Men are more likely to help than women

There is some tendency for some-race helping, especially if they are drunk, not ill

Help comes quickest and from more people with more witnesses present

The longer an emergency continues without help being offered, the less impact a model has and people are more likely to leave the critical area

Ethics:

They broke deception, consent, withdrawal, protection from harm and debrief

Kept confidentiality and competence

Reliability:

Internal - the actors always did the same things and wore the same clothes so it is a replicable procedure

External - There was not enough of each type of trial to suggest a consistent effect in the results

Validity:

Internal - The passenger may have seen the incident before as it always happened on the same service at the same times also the observers may have missed key behaviours

External - The sample is hard to be generalised from as it was always daytime when lots of people would be at work however it took place in a real life setting and anyone could have collapsed on the train

Ethnocentrism:

New York is such a diverse city so there are a lot of different cultures so it can be seen as not ethnocentric

However they did all live in the same culture at the time of the study

How in social area:

Investigating the impact that other people have on behaviour and if the likelihood of someone helping in an emergency situation is increase or decreased by the known presence of others

How links to key theme of responses to people in need:

People are more likely to help if there are factors beyond the victims control e.g. being ill

Diffusion of responsibility had been disproved but it may be dependent on how other people around you are helping

Links to debate:

Freewill/determinism - it is determined that people will help out when someone appears to be ill but it is unclear what the determining factor is

Reductionism/holism - can be seen as holistic as it takes into account physiological and cognitive factors. However it can be seen as reductionist as it misses out reasons like kindness and genuine desire to help someone in need

Contemporary study: Levine et al

Background:

Differences have been noted around the world in levels of help offered however there is very little scientific evidence

Often testing the popular hypothesis that the tendency to help strangers declines as the size of a city increases

Questions over whether strangers are more likely to receive help in some cities more than others

Key terms:

Collectivist - priority given to one or more collective entities e.g. a tribe, look out for and hep anyone in the community

Individualist - focus on the individual and nuclear family

Purchasing power parity - an economic well-being measure of how much the average income earned in that country was capable of purchasing

Simpatia - being friendly, nice agreeable and good natured is prioritised over achievement and productivity

Aims:

To see if the tendency of people within a city to offer non-emergency help to strangers was stable across different situations in which people needed help

To see if helping of strangers varies across cultures

To identify the characteristics of those communities in which strangers are more (or less) likely to be helped

Research Method:

Quasi experiment

The IV is the country they are in and the DV is the helping behaviour

Sample:

The selection of countries was aimed at obtaining the widest possible sample of the regions and cultures in the world but was sometimes driven by convenience

They would usually choose the largest city with a population of more than 230,000

Procedure:

Dropped pen

Walking at a moderate pace confederates walked towards a solitary pedestrian passing in the opposite direction

When 10 to 15 feet away the confederate would reach into his pocket and drop his pen behind him

A total of 214 men and 210 women were approached

Participants were recorded as giving help if they called out that he dropped his pen or picked it up and returned it to him

Hurt leg

Walking with a heavy limp and wearing a large clearly visible leg brace confederates would drop and struggle to pick up a pile of magazines as they came in 20 feet of a passing pedestrian

A total of 253 men and 240 women were approached

Helping was defined as offering to help and/or beginning to help without offering

Helping a blind person across the street

Confederates, dressed in dark glasses and carrying white canes, would locate city centre intersections which had pedestrian crossings, traffic signals and moderate, steady pedestrian flow

Just before the lights turned green they would step up to the corner hold out their cane and wait for help

A total of 281 trials were conducted

Participants were recorded as having helped if, at a minimum, they informed them of the green light

Discarded tasks

Asking for change - as there is a shortage of small value notes and coins in some places

Mislaid letters being picked up and passed on - being afraid to touch them in case they contain explosives or due to a lack of post boxes

Findings:

Modest degree of consistency found across the 3 different situations within a culture

A large variance from 40% to 93% across the cultures

No significance between population size and helping

No significance between if they were collectivist or individualistic and helping

Small relationship between pace of life and helping but not significant. The faster the pace of life the less likely they are to help

Significant relationship found between purchasing power parity and helping. More help when lover levels of economic well-being

No difference found between males and females on level of helping in pen and leg trials

The four Latin american countries and Spain were above the mean in overall helping levels, simpatia countries have a percentage of 82.87% and the non-simpatia countries have a percentage of 65.87%

Conclusions:

Overall levels of helping across cultures are inversely related to a country's economic productivity. They also conclude that countries with the cultural tradition of simpatia are on average more helpful than countries with no such tradition.

Ethics:

They kept confidentiality and protection from harm

They broke consent, withdrawal, debrief and deception

Reliability:

Internal - All the experimenters received detailed instructions and on-site field training so it is standardised. Also you can see the consistency of the helping behaviour as they had the three different tasks

External - Large number of trials were run to obtain a consistent trend in the data however it is possible that not all the students were measuring the helping behaviour in the same way

Validity:

Internal - Some of the participant may have seen what they were doing so got suspicious. Also they may have been measuring something like lower economic wealth

External - The situation was plausible as correct equipment and environment used

Ethnocentrism:

Not ethnocentric as they looked 23 countries with different cultural backgrounds

However there is an imbalance in the countries studied e.g. no Africa or middle eastern Arabic stated

How in social area:

All four of the variables when correlated were social e.g. how many people live in the city, how individualistic they are.

How links to key theme of helping behaviour:

levels of helping behaviour vary considerably around the world, with the highest being in the simpatia countries

Links to debate:

Usefulness of research - Very few practical applications however it has informed future research

Individual/situational - seeing the confederate in need of help, especially in the blind trial, and personal circumstances lead them to be more helful

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Classic study:

Key terms:

Aims:

Research Method:

Experimental design:

Sample:

Sampling method:

Procedure:

Findings:

Conclusions:

Ethics:

Reliability:

Validity:

Ethnocentrism:

How in individual differences area:

How links to key theme of measuring differences:

Links to debate:

Contemporary study:

Key terms:

Aims:

Research Method:

Experimental design:

Sample:

Sampling method:

Procedure:

Findings:

Conclusions:

Ethics:

Reliability:

Validity:

Ethnocentrism:

How in individual differences area:

How links to key theme of measuring differences:

Links to debate: