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Studies/research

Emily Hargreaves Psychology A-Level Inglês 5,0Avaliação média 5,0 de 5 (1 avaliação) 149 flashcards

Studies/research

Flashcards do conjunto (149)

  1. 1PavlovBEFRE CONDITIONING
    Bell (NS) ---> No response from dog
    Dog food (UCS) ---> Salivation (UCR)
    DURING CONDITIONING
    Bell + dog food ---> Salivation
    AFTER CONDITIONING
    Bell (CS) ---> Salivation (CR)
  2. 2SkinnerRat in box
    POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT
    Rat pressed lever ---> Food
    Green light presented + lever ---> Food
    Red light presented + lever ---> No food
    NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT
    Rat electrocuted ---> shock stops when rat presses lever ---> Rat remains on lever
  3. 3Watson & RaynorThe 'Little Albert' Study
    Loud noise (UCS) ---> Fear (UCR)
    Loud noise (UCS) + Rat (NS) ---> Fear (UCR)
    Rat (CS) ---> Fear (CR)
  4. 4Bandura- Vicarious reinforcement
    - Children copied aggressive role model
    - More likely to copy same sex model    Bandura
  5. 5BrocaIdentified how damage to an area of the frontal lobe (the Broca's area) could permanently impair speech production
  6. 6FreudLittle Hans - Case study
    - Phobia of horses
    - Fear of horses symbolized castration anxiety
    - The Oedipus complex
  7. 7Asch- 123 male undergraduates in the US
    - 6-8 confederates + 1 naive participant
    - Line matching task
    - Participant placed in middle towards end
    - 37% conformed
    - 63% didn't conform
  8. 8Asch (variations on study)Giving written answers - 25% conformity
    Social support - 5% conformity
    Smaller group size - 32% conformity
  9. 9Moscovici et al- Minority influence
    - 172 American female participants
    - 6 people asked to view a set of 36 blue-coloured slides that varied in intensity
    - Asked to state whether the slides were blue or green
    - 2 confederates always said the slide was green (condition 1) then on 2/3 of the trials (condition 2).
    - Stage 1 - Participants agreed on 8.2 % o trials
    - Stage 2 - Participants agreed on 1.25% of trials
  10. 10Milgram (Procedure)- 40 male participants aged 20-40
    1. Told they were either teacher or learner
    2. Introduced to a fellow participant 'Mr Wallace' (a confederate)
    3. Mr Wallace always learner, participants always teacher
    4. Participants saw Mr Wallace strapped into a chair, then asked to complete a memory task
    5. Every time Mr Wallace made a mistake, Milgram ordered the participant to give him an electric shock
    - Level of shock increased at each mistake
    - 0-450 volts, labelled 'danger! severe shock' and 'XXX'
    - The learner screamed and shouted at the increasing shocks and was eventually silent
    - When participants protested, Milgram told them "The experiment requires that you continue"
  11. 11Milgram (Findings + Variations)- All 40 participants gave 300 volts (danger! severe shock)
    - 65% of participants had gone on to give fatal shocks
    > Change of location to a run down building - obedience decreased to 47.5%
    > Experimenter replaced by a confederate in normal clothes - obedience dropped to 20%
  12. 12Zimbardo- 24 male participants deemed to be the most physically and mentally stable out of the 75 respondents from the advert
    - Simulated prison
    - Randomly allocated 'guard' or 'prisoner'
    - Day 1 - guards began to humiliated and punish the prisoners, prisoners showed signs of emotional distress
    - 3-6 days - prisoners began to act more passively after rioting on day 2 (guards chose to work more hours)
    - Guards become more aggressive, prisoners become institutionalised. > Pathological prisoner syndrome
  13. 13KF- Brain damage to Occipital lobe in a motorcycle accident
    - STM damaged (digit span of 1), but LTM was normal
    - Remembered words better if presented visually as opposed to auditorally
    - Supports the working memory model
  14. 14HM- Lobotomy to correct epileptic seizures
    - After surgery, no longer able to form new long term memories
    - Kept his procedural memory (skills), but lost his episodic memory (events). - his body knew the way to his doctors office, even though he didn't.
  15. 15Phineas Gage- During a construction explosion iron bar pierced his brain
    - Showed that parts of the brain could be removed without having a fatal effect
    - Different areas of the brain are in control of different functions
    - Damage to the front of the brain leads to personality changes
  16. 16ConradResearch on coding
    - Participants presented with a series of 6 letters, & told that they had to write down each list in the order the letters were given immediately after the presentation.
    - Errors muddling acoustically similar words e.g. B & V, S & F, P &B
    - Shows coding is acoustic in STM
  17. 17MillerResearch on capacity
    - Span of memory and chunking
    - Serial digit span studies - presenting participants with an increasingly long series of digits that they have to report back in order. When they fail on 50% of trials, they've reached their digit span capacity.
    Magic number: 7+/-2
  18. 18JacobsResearch on Capacity
    - Participants read lists of either words or numbers, then had to recall them in the correct order, immediately after they were taken away.
    - Overtime the length of these digits or letters increased until the participant could only accurately recall the information in the correct order on 50% of occasions.
    - Easier for participants to recall numbers than letters.
    - It averaged that people would recall 9 numbers but only 7 letters.
    - STM has a capacity of between 5 and 9 items of information and as age increases we appear to develop better strategies of recall.
  19. 19Peterson & PetersonResearch on Duration
    - 24 participants asked to recall trigrams after set intervals of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, or 18 seconds.
    - Given a distractor task to prevent rehearsal
    - The longer the interval delay, the less trigrams recalled
    - Participants were able to recall 80% of trigrams after 3 secs, however, after 18 secs, less than 10% of trigrams were remebered correctly.
    - Shows that STM has a limited duration when rehearsal is prevented. Supports the multi-store model.
  20. 20Bahrich et alDuration of LTM
    - 400 participants aged 17-74
    1. Free recall test where participants tried to remember names of recall in a graduate class
    2. A photo recognition test consisting of 50 photos
    3. A name recognition test for ex-school friends
    - Participants who were tested within 15 years of graduation were about 90% accurate in identifying names and faces
    - After 48 years, they were accurate for 80% verbal and 70% visual.
    - Free recall was worse, after 15 years it was 60% and after 48 years it was 30% accurate.
  21. 21Loftus & Palmer- The effect of leading verbs on eyewitness accounts of a car crash
    - All ppts watched a film in which 2 cars crashed into eachother, then randomly allocated into one of 5 groups and asked to answer some questions about the film.
    - "How fast were the cars going when they hit eachother", however, other groups were given a different verb instead of hit: smashed, collided, bumped, or contaced.
    - The mean speed estimate for each group was as follows:- Smashed: 40.8, Collided: 39.3, Bumped: 38.1, Hit: 34 and Contacted: 31.8mph.
  22. 22Johnson & ScottEffect of weapons on accuracy of EWT
    - PPTS believed they were taking part in a lab study. Whilst in the waiting room, ppts heard an argument in the room next door.
    - Low anxiety situation: man with grease on hands walks through with a pen.
    - High anxiety situation: Heated argument + sound of breaking glass. Man through holding a paper knife covered with blood.
    - Participants were shown 50 photos , 49% who had seen man with pen recalled him. 33 who had seen man with knife recalled him.
    > the weapon become the source of anxiety
  23. 23Gabbert et alDoes post discussion affect EWT?
    - Studied in pairs
    -Each participant watched a video from a different perspective
    - They then discussed what they had seen
    - 71% recalled information that was not available to them whilst watching the video
    MEMORY CONFORMITY
  24. 24Godden and BaddeleyCONTEXT DEPENDENT FORGETTING: - 18 divers asked to learn lists of 36 unrelated words of 2 or 3 syllables. 4 conditions:
    a) Learn on beach - recall on beach
    b) Learn on beach - recall underwater
    c) Learn underwater - recall on beach
    d) Learn underwter - recall underwater
    PPTS recalled more words when learnt & recalled in the same environment
  25. 25Goodwin et alSTATE DEPENDENT FORGETTING:- 48 male medical students participated on day 1 in a training session and on day 2 in a testing. They were randomly assigned to 4 groups:
    1) (SS) Sober on both days
    2) (AA) Intoxicated on both days
    3) (AS) Intoxicated day 1, sober day 2
    4) (SA) Sober day 1, intoxicated day 2
    - Results were better when learning and testing was carried out in the same state.
  26. 26Keppel and UnderwoodEvidence for proactive interference
    - PPTS asked to recall consonant trigrams after varying intervals during which they counted backwards in 3s.
    - Forgetting increased with the interval & there was little or no forgetting of trigrams from the start of the procedure. The earlier memory for the consonants (LTM) interfered with the memory for the later consonants.
  27. 27Underwood and PostmanEvidence for retroactive interference
    Participants divided into two groups
    a) Asked to learn a list of word pairs i.e. cat-tree, then asked to learn a second lost of word pairs where the second paired word was different i.e. cat-glass.
    b) Asked to learn the first list of word pairs only.
    Both groups were asked to recall the first list of word pairs.
    > Group B recall was better, suggesting that the second list interfered with the ppts ability to recall the first list.
  28. 28Schaffer and Emerson- 60 babies, 31 male + 29 female from Glasgow, majority from skilled working class families.
    - Babies and their mothers were visited at home every month for the first year and again at 18 months.
    - The researchers asked the mothers questions about the kind of protest their babies showed in 7 everyday separations e.g. adult leaving the room to measure separation anxiety, to measure the infants attachment. Stranger anxiety was also assessed.
    > Between 25-32 weeks of age about 50% of babies showed signs of separation anxiety towards a particular adult (usually the mother), this is specific attachment. Attachment tended to be to the caregiver who interacted and responded to the babies' signals the most. By the age of 40 weeks, 80% of babies had a specific attachment, and almost 30% displayed multiple attachments.
    - By the age of 1 year, the majority of infants had developed multiple attachments.
    > Schaffer and Emerson used the data collected to propose that attachments developed in 4 stages.
  29. 29Ainsworth (Procedure)THE STRANGE SITUATIONAinsworth (Procedure)
  30. 30Ainsworth (Findings)> Secure attachment (Type B) - Explore happilt but regularly seek proximity with caregiver. Moderate separation distress and stranger anxiety. Require and accept comfort from caregiver upon reunion. (60-75% of British toddlers )
    > Insecure-avoidant attachment (Type A) - Explore freely, and no sign of secure base behaviour. Little or no separation or stranger anxiety. Do not require comfort upon return of caregiver. (20-25%)
    > Insecure-resistant attachment (Type C) - Seek greater proximity so explore less. Huge separation and stranger anxiety, but resist comfort when reunited with caregiver. (3% of British toddlers)
  31. 31Van Ijzendoorn- Located 32 studies of attachment (in 8 countries) where the strange situation had been carried out. Yields results for 1,990 children, then carried out a meta-analysis of the data.Van Ijzendoorn
  32. 32Lorenz- Observed imprinting in geese
    - Randomly divided a clutch of goose eggs. 1/2 were attached with the mother goose in their natural environment and 1/2 were hatched in an incubator where the first moving object they saw was Lorenz.
    - The incubator group followed Lorenz, whereas the control group followed their mother. When the 2 groups were mixed up, the control continued to follow their mother, and the others continued to follow Lorenz.
    - This is IMPRINTING. Bird species that are mobile from birth (e.g. geese and ducks) attach to and follow the first moving object they see.
    - Lorenz identified a critical period in which this imprinting needs to take place (usually in the first few hours after hatching.) If this does not occur, then the chicks do not become attached to the mother figure.
  33. 33Harlow- Reared 16 baby monkeys with a cloth mother and a wire mother.
    - Babies cuddled/sought comfort from the soft mother in preference to the wire mother, regardless of which one provided them with food.
    - 'Contact comfort' was more important than food when it came to attachment behaviour.    Harlow
  34. 34GrossmanTHE ROLE OF THE FATHER
    - Carried out a longitudinal study looking at both parents' behaviour and its relationship to the quality of children's attachments into their teens.
    - Quality of infant attachment with mothers but not fathers was related to children's attachments adolescence, suggesting that father attachment was less important.
    - However, the quality of fathers' play with infants WAS related to the quality of adolescent attachment.
    - This suggests that fathers have a different role in attachment - one that is more to do with play and stimulation, and less to do with nurturing.
  35. 35Bowlby44 JUVENILE THIEVES
    - Maternal deprivation theory
    - 44 criminal teenagers accused of stealing. were interviewed for signs of affectionless psychopathy; characterised as a lack of affection, lack of guilt about their actions, and lack of empathy for their victims.
    - Their families were also interviewed to establish whether the thieves had prolonged early separations from their mothers.
    - A control group of non-criminal but emotionally disturbed young people was set up to see how often maternal separation/deprivation occurred in the children who were not thieves.
    > Bowlby found that 14 out of the 44 thieves could be described as affectionless psychopaths. Of this 14, 12 had experienced prolonged separation from their mothers in the first 2 years of their lives. In contrast, only 5 of the remaining 30 'thieves' had experienced separations. Of the control group, only 2 /44 had experienced long separations.
  36. 36Rutter (Procedure)ROMANIAN ORPHAN STUDIES
    - Studied a group of 165 Romanian orphans adopted in Britain to test to what extent good care could make up for poor early experiences in institutions. Physical, cognitive and emotional development was assessed at ages 4, 6, 11, and 15 years. A group of 52 British children adopted at the same time served as a control group.
  37. 37Rutter (Findings)> When they first arrived in the UK, 1/2 the adoptees showed signs of mental retardation & the majority were severely undernourished.
    > At age 11, the adopted children showed differential rates of recovery that were related to their age of adoption. The mean IQ of the children adopted before the age of 6 moths was 102, compared with 86 for those adopted between 6 months and 2 years, and 77 for those adopted after 2 years. These difference remained at age 16 (Beckett et al, 2010).
    > Those children adopted after 6 moths showed a particular attachment style called disinhibited attachment. Symptoms include attention seeking, clinginess, and social behaviour directed indiscriminately towards all adults. both familiar and unfamiliar.
    . In contrast, those adopted before the age of 6 moths rarely displayed disinhibited attachment.
  38. 38Hazan and ShaverRELATIONSHIPS IN ADULTHOOD
    - Analysed 620 replies to a 'love quiz' printed in an American local newspaper. The quiz had 3 sections. The 1st assessed respondents' current or most important relationship. The 2nd part assessed general love experiences such as number of partners. The 3rd assessed attachment type by asking respondents to choose which of 3 statements best described their feelings.
    > Findings - 56% of respondents were identified as being securely attached, with 25% insecure-avoidant and 19% insecure resistant. Those reporting secure attachments were the most likely to have a good job and longer lasting romantic experiences. The avoidant respondents tended to reveal jealousy and fear of intimacy. These findings suggest that patterns of attachment behaviour are reflected in adult relationships.
  39. 39Broca- Studied a patient called 'Tan'
    - 'Tan' had a difficulty producing speech
    - When 'Tan' died, Broca performed a post mortem on him , and found that he had damage to the frontal lobe.
    BROCA'S APHASIA
    - Damage to Broca's area causes specific speech abnormalities. Understanding of spoken/written language is normal, but production of speech is a problem.
  40. 40Carl Wernicke- Wernicke's patients had problems understanding speech. They had brain damage in an area of the temporal lobe.
    WERNICKE'S AREA
    - Damage to Wernicke's area produces difficulty in understanding spoken/written language.
    - The language that they produce is muddled (neologisms)
  41. 41Maguire et al- Studied the brains of London taxi drivers to investigate whether or not the hippocampus plays a role in human spatial memory. London taxi drivers with a range of age and experienced were used as their job requires the use of spatial navigational skills.
    Matched pairs design with non-taxi drivers
    - MRI scans used to compare the brains
    - Taxi drivers showed significantly more grey matter in both left and right hippocampi compared to the control group.
  42. 42SperrySPLIT BRAIN RESEARCH
    Aim: To investigate hemispheric lateralisation with the use of split-brain patients, to examine the extent to which the two hemispheres are specialised for certain functions.    Sperry
  43. 43Tajiri et al- Role of stem cells in recovery from brain injury.
    - Randomly assigned rats with traumatic brain injury to 1 of 2 groups.
    - One group received transplants of stem cells into the region of the brain affected by traumatic injury. The control group received a solution containing no stem cells.
    - 3 months after the brain injury, the brains of stem cell rats showed clear development of neuron-like cells in the area of injury. This was accompanied by a solid stream of stem cells migrating to the brain's site of injury. This was not the case with the control group.
  44. 44Schneider et al- Found that patients with the equivalent of a college education are 7x more likely than those who didn't finish school to be disability free one year after a moderate to severe traumatic brain injury.
    - Carried out a retrospective study based on data from the US Traumatic Brain Injury Systems Database. Of the 769 patients studied, 214 had achieved disability free recovery after 1 year. Of these, 39.2% of the patients with 16 or more years of education had achieved DFR, as had 30.8% of those with 12-15 years of education, and just 9.7% of those with less than 12 years of education achieved DFR after just one year.
    > Conclusion: 'Cognitive reserve' (associated with greater educational attainment) could be a factor in neural adaptation during recovery from traumatic brain injury.
  45. 45Kleitman- Studied participants who went to live in an underground bunker with no cues of light or dark.
    - They had to choose their own sleep/wake times.
    - Their circadian rhythms were extended between 25-27 hours.
  46. 46Siffre- Investigated the natural duration of his own sleep-wake cycle, by isolating himself from daylight in a dark cave with only artificial light for 6 months.
    - No clock or reference to time however he did have contact with the outside world.
    - His sleep-wake cycle settled naturally at around 25 hours, although sometimes it would range up to 48 hours.
    > Conclusion: The absence of natural daylight allowed his biological clock to run at it's natural rate, and that normally, natural daylight acted as an exogenous zeitgeber to re-synchronise the cycle.
  47. 47Recht et al- JET LAG - an unpleasant feeling of extreme tiredness, depression and slowed reactions. If body temp is out of sync, this can make symptoms worse.
    - Longitudinal study of baseball teams in the UK over 3 years who travelled both East -> West and West -> East for games.
    - Findings: East -> West won 44% of games, West-> East won only 37% .
  48. 48Lesku et al (Procedure)- Analysed data on sleep patterns of 54 species. Investigated 5 factors:
    1. Body mass 2. Brain mass 3. Basal metabolic rate (BMR) 4. Sleep exposure index (assessment of the sleep site and how safe it is for the animal) 5. Trophic position (whether the animal is a herbivore or carnivore.)
  49. 49Lesku et al (Findings)1. Brain mass is positively correlated with amount of REM sleep (the larger the brain the more REM sleep)
    2. Sleep exposure index is negatively correlated with amount of REM sleep (the more risky the sleep state, the less REM sleep)
    3. Herbivores sleep less and have less REM sleep (herbivores are usually prey)
    4. BMR is negatively correlated with NREM and total sleep time (however, other research has contradicted this)
  50. 50Folkard et al- Investigated the effect of manipulating exogenous zeitgebers on the sleep-wake cycle.
    - 12 participants placed in temporal isolation (isolated to only the time cues within their environment and not external time cues) for weeks. The environment was a cave with no external light and a single large clock that the researchers were able to control.
    - The participants agreed to go to bed when the clock showed 11:45 pm and get up at 7:45am.
    - Initially the researchers set the clock to run at normal 24 hour cycles, however, they gradually increased its speed so that eventually a day passed in just 22 hours.
    - All but 1 of the participants synchronized their sleep-wake cycles to the pace of the clock.
  51. 51Stephan and Zucker- Laboratory rats housed with 12 hours of light and 12 hours of darkness showed a circadian rhythm of drinking and active movement, being more active and drinking more during the dark period.
    - When the rats' SCN was damaged, normal circadian patterns of behaviour stopped.
    > Conclusion: The SCN is a key pacemaker which controls Circadian rhythms. Other research on squirrels and male hamsters confirmed their findings.
  52. 52Ralph et al- Investigated the role of the SCN in the sleep-wake cycle of hamsters.
    - They removed the supra-chaismatic nuclei from a sample of mutant hamsters who had a natural sleep-wake cycle of 21 hours, and transplanted them into the brains of non-mutant hamsters who had a natural sleep-wake cycle of 24 hours.
    > The non-mutant hamsters changed to the 21 hour cycle of the mutant hamsters, showing that the SCN is the dominant pacemaker.
  53. 53Rubin et al- To find out if new parents stereotype their babies
    - Parents were asked to describe their new babies within 24 hours of them being born
    - Found that parents of baby boys described their babies as being alert and strong, whereas parents of girls described their babies as being soft and delicate.
    > Conclusion: Parents stereotype their children from a very early age despite no stereotypical behaviour being shown. This behaviour often begins before the baby is born when the gender is known e.g paintings girls room pink/ a boys room blue.
  54. 54Seavey et al (Procedure)- To see whether the gender label attached to the baby affected the adult responses.
    - 3 month old infant dressed in a yellow suit. 1/3 of participants told that the infant was a male, 1/3 female, and 1/3 were not given a gender label. Participants were left to interact with the child for 3 minutes. Also in the room were some toys: a ball, a rag doll and a plastic ring.
  55. 55Seavey et al (Findings)> When the baby was labelled as female, participants were more likely to use the doll when playing with the child.
    > When the baby was labelled as male, the plastic ring was chosen most frequently to play with.
    > Where no gender was given, the female participants interacted far more with the baby than the males did.
    > In the no-label condition almost all the participants spontaneously decided on a sex for the baby. Their decision was often justified in terms of how the baby was perceived physically e.g. soft = girl, good grip = b0y.
    > Conclusion: Adults will interact differently with infants depending on whether they believe they are male or female.
  56. 56Bem- Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI)
    - Inventory for measuring gender
    - Rating scale of 60 traits: 20 masculine, 20 feminine & 20 neutral to produce scores across 2 dimensions:
    Masculinity-femininity & Androgynous-undifferentiated
  57. 57David Reimer (Case Study)- Support for biological approach
    - Penis accidentally destroyed in a circumcision when he was 8 months old.
    - Raised as a girl, Brenda, as Dr Money believed gender is flexible.
    - Puberty -> he developed male characteristics, hobbies & interests
    - Later had surgery to reconstruct a penis when his parents told him the truth
    > David's Y chromosomes may have caused the male characteristics through the production of testosterone.
  58. 58Gorski et al- Discovered a structural difference in th brains of male and female rats.
    - A region of the hypothalamus know as the sexually dimorphic nucleus which is larger in males than females.
    - Gorski attributed this to pre-natal exposure to the male hormone testosterone.
    - This might account for differences in behaviour between males and females.
  59. 59Marcus and Overton- Support for Kohlberg's theory
    - Using a flipbook, children were shown 'muddled' pictures where hairstyles and clothes of a male and female character could be changed. The children were then asked what sex they thought the character was.
    > Younger children believed that changing clothes an change a person's sex i.e. a boy in a dress becomes a girl.
    > Older children understood that gender is constant and that changes in outward appearances do not influence whether someone is male or female.
  60. 60Slaby and Frey- Investigated the development of children's understanding of gender in relation to the attention they give to the same-sex models.
    - Children between age 2-5, divided into high and low gender constancy groups, shown a silent film.
    - 2 adult models, one male and one female, were carrying out stereotyped gender role activity (baking/changing a wheel). The children watched both films and eye movement and direction of gaze were recorded to assess which film they looked at the most.
    > The children that had high levels of gender constancy spent more time watching same-sex role models than those with low gender constancy - supporting Kohlberg's theory.
  61. 61Bussey and Bandura- Found that children as young as 4 reported 'feeling good' about playing with gender appropriate toys and 'feeling bad' about doing the opposite.
    > Contradicts Kohlberg's theory
    > Supports gender-schema theory
  62. 62Smith and Lloyd- 4-6 month old babies who (irrespective of their actual sex ) were dressed half the time in girls clothes and half the time in boys clothes.
    - Adults played with the infants according to what they believed was the gender of the child (color of clothes).
    - This indicates that a baby’s perceived gender is part of the baby’s social environment because people treat the child according to perceptions of gender.
    - This could influence the child’s own perception of gender and become a determining factor in the development of the child’s gender role identity (differential reinforcement)
  63. 63Martin and Halverson- Children under the age of 6 are more likely to remember gender consistent information than gender inconsistent.
    - Showed children aged 5&6 pictures of people carrying out activities. Sometimes these pictures were scheme consistent e.g. a girl with a doll, and sometimes gender inconsistent e.g. a girl playing with a gun.
    > Recall for schema-consistent pictures was generally good. However, when schema-inconsistent pictures were recalled, they were often distorted so that the expected sex was remembered as carrying out the activity i.e. a boy with a gun rather than the girl.
  64. 64Campbell & Poulin-Dubois et al- Showed that children pay attention to same-sex role models much earlier than Kohlberg thought.
    - Young children turn to gender roles before they can speak
    - Contradicts Kohlberg's theory, but is consistent with the predicitions of gender-schema theory.
  65. 65Stevenson and Black- Support for Freud's theory
    - There is some evidence to suggest that boys whose fathers are absent during the age of 5 (when the Oedipus complex develops) show less sex-typed behaviour than boys whose fathers were present throughout.
  66. 66Margaret Mead (Procedure)- Mead carried out a detailed ethnographic study by living with various tribes in New Guinea for six months.
    - In the Arapesh tribe Mead found that both men and woman were feminine. They both were very expressive, caring and co-operative. Both the male and female took to bed when the female was pregnant – they were both said to ‘bear a child’.
    - In the Mundugamor tribe, both sexes were masculine – assertive, arrogant and fierce. Both didn’t like childcare so much the baby was put out of the way in a dark place.
    - In the Tchambuli tribe, gender roles were reversed compared to Western society. Females took care of trade and were independent, whereas the men sat around gossiping and were considered incapable of making decisions.
  67. 67Margaret Mead (Findings)- There may not be a direct biological relationship between sex and gender - gender roles depend on culture.
    - In later work, Mead conceded that she underestimated the universal nature of many gender typical behaviours. However, she went on to argue that the extent to which innate behaviours are expressed are the result of cultural norms.
  68. 68Malinowski- Studied the Trobriand islanders (situated off the eastern coast of New Guinea)
    - In documenting their sexual behaviour, Malinowski reported that the Trobriand women were sometimes highly sexually aggressive.
    - Gangs of women would capture and rape men from other tribes, often quite brutally. They would boast about their conquests and consider these to enhance the reputation of their tribe.
  69. 69Buss (Procedure)Cross-cultural factors in attraction
    AIM: The aim of the International Mate Selection Project was to identify the characteristics that individuals valued in potential mates worldwide.
    PROCEDURE: Participants were 9,474 individuals from 37 cross-cultural samples (33 countries and five islands on six continents; mean age 23.15). The data was collected through two questionnaires developed in the USA and translated.
  70. 70Buss (Findings)RESULTS:
    > Respondents in nearly all cultures rated “mutual attraction and love” as the most important in a relationship. This shows that the desire for mutual love in a relationship is not merely a Western phenomenon.
    > “Chastity” showed the largest effect for culture (37% of the variance). Chastity was valued in China, India, Taiwan, Palestinian Israel, and Iran. Respondents in the Netherlands and the Scandinavian countries did not care about chastity.
    > “Good financial prospects”, “good earning capacity”, ambition, and social status are consistently valued more in a partner by women than men cross-culturally.
    > "Youth” is valued more by men than women. Men prefer wives that are younger but how much younger depends on the culture. In cultures that allow many wives, there may be large age differences.
    > “Physical attractiveness” in a partner is valued more by men than women. Cross-cultural norms of physical attractiveness are, for example, clear and supple skin, regular features, full lips.
  71. 71McGhee and FruehFound that people who view a lot of television tend to display more gender-stereotypical views in their behaviour and attitudes than people who view little.
  72. 72PingreeFound that gender stereotyping was reduced when children were shown TV adverts featuring women in non-stereotypical roles.
  73. 73Zhou- Studied the bed nucleus of the Stria Terminalis (BSTc) , which is assumed to be fully developed at age 5, and around 40% bigger in males that females.
    - In post postmortems of 6 male-to-female transgender individuals who had received feminising hormones, the BSTc was found to be a similar size to a heterosexual woman.
  74. 74Krujiver et al- Focused on the no. of neurons in the BSTc rather than the volume.
    - Again, the 6 transgender individuals showed a similar no. of neurons in the BSTc to those found in heterosexual women.
    > CONCLUSION: The BSTc provides evidence for a neurological basis of gender dysphoria, and proposed that such was determined before birth.
  75. 75Coolidge- Assessed 157 twin pairs (96 MZ + 61 DZ) for evidence of GID using the clinical diagnosis of criteria in DSM-4.
    - The prevalence of GID was estimatd to be 2.3% with 62% of these cases said to be accounted for by genetic variance.
    - This suggests that there is a strong heritable component to GID.
  76. 76Heylens et al- Compared 23 MZ twins with 21 DZ twins where one of each pair was diagnosed with GID.
    - Found that 9 (39%) of the MZ twins were concordant for GID compared to none of the DZs which would indicate a role for genetic factors in the development of GID.
  77. 77Chung- Claims that pre-natal hormonal influences (that affect the size of the BSTc) are not triggered until adulthood.
    - Although hormonal influences do occur before birth, the structural changes in the brain that are a result of these do not occur until much later.
    - This evidence casts doubts on the idea that dimorphic brain differences are present in early childhood.
  78. 78Ovesey and Person- Argued that GID in males is caused by the child experiencing extreme separation anxiety before gender identity established.
    - The child fantasizes a of a symbolic fusion with his mother to relieve the anxiety, and the danger of separation is removed.
    - The consequence of this is that the child, in a very real sense, becomes the mother, so adopts a female gender identity.
  79. 79Stoller- Offers some support for this theory (Ovesey and Person), in interviews with GID males.
    - They were seen to display overly close mother-son relationships that would lead to greater female identification and confused gender identity in the long term.
  80. 80Loring and Powell- Selected 290 male and female psychiatrists to read case studies of patients' behaviour and make a judgement on these people using standardised diagnostic criteria (e.g. DSM)
    - When the patients were described as 'male' or no info about gender was given, 56% of psychiatrists have a schizophrenia diagnosis.
    - When patients were described as 'female', only 20% were given a diagnosis of Schizophrenia.
    - The gender bias was not as evident among the female psychiatrists, suggesting that diagnosis is influenced not only by the gender of the patient but also the gender of the clinician.
  81. 81Weber et al- Looked at nearly 6 million hospital discharge records to calculate co-morbidity rates.
    - Not only did they find co-morbidity of other psychiatric disorders with Schizophrenia (45%), they also found evidence of co-morbid non-psychiatric disorders such as asthma, hypertension and type 2 diabetes.
    - The authors concluded that the very nature of a diagnosis of a psychiatric disorder is that they tend to receive a lower standard of medical care, which in turn adversely affects the prognosis of patients with schizophrenia.
  82. 82Kendler et al- Concordance rates of schizophrenia for MZ and DZ twins
    - 30.9% concordance for MZ twins
    - 6.5% concordance for DZ twins
  83. 83Cardno et al- Concordance rates of schizophrenia for MZ and DZ twins
    - 40% concordance for MZ twins
    - 5.3% concordance for DZ twins
  84. 84Tierini- Studied the adopted children of schizophrenic (biological) mothers and a matched control group.
    - Participants aged between 5-57 and at the start of the study adopted before the age of 4.
    - 7.5% of the schizophrenic parent adoptees had developed schizophrenia as opposed to 1.5% of controls.
    - These studies have been praised for their longevity, which allows the researchers to have a longer view of the effects of genetics.
  85. 85Gottesman and ShieldsGenetics - Twin studies
    - Found that the concordance rate for schizophrenia in MZ twins was 48% compared to 17% for DZ twins.
  86. 86JosephGenetics - Twin studies
    - Found that the concordance rate for schizophrenia in MZ twins was 40.4% compared to 7.4% for DZ twins.
  87. 87Sarin and Wallin- Reviewed recent research evidence relating to the cognitive models of schizophrenia.
    - They found supporting evidence for the claim that the positive symptoms have their origins in faulty cognition.
    - For example, delusional patients were found to show various biases in their information processing, such as jumping to conclusions and lack of reality testing.
    - Likewise, schizophrenic individuals with hallucinations were found to have impaired self-monitoring and also tended to experience their own thoughts as voices.
    - In addition, they found that patients with negative symptoms also displayed dysfunctional thought processes such as having low expectations regarding pleasure and success.
  88. 88Tienari et alAdoption study looking at the importance of family relationships in the development of schizophrenia.
    - Children who had schizophrenic biological parents were more likely to become ill themselves than those children with non-biological parents.
    - However, the difference only emerged in situations where the adopted family was rated as disturbed. In other words, the illness only manifested itself under appropriate environmental conditions.
    - Genetic vulnerability alone was not sufficient.
  89. 89Berger- Found that schizophrenics reported a higher recall of double bind statements by their mothers than non schizophrenics.
  90. 90Liem- Measured patterns of parental communication on families with a schizophrenic child and found no difference when compared to normal families.
  91. 91Read et al- Reviewed 46 studies of child abuse and schizophrenia.
    - Found that 69% of adult women in-patients with a diagnosis of schizophrenia had a history of physical abuse, sexual abuse, or both in childhood.
    - For men, the figure was 59%.
  92. 92Garety et al- Failed to show any better outcomes for patients given sessions of family therapy compared to those who simply had carers but no family therapy.
    - Individuals in both groups were found to have unexpectedly low rates of relapse, contrasting markedly with the rates found in the 'no carer' group.
    - The researchers found that most of the carers in this study displayed relatively low rates of expressed emotion, which may reflect widespread cultural changes in carers' knowledge and attitudes of schizophrenia.
    - Garety et al suggest that, for many people, family intervention may not improve outcomes further than a good standard of treatment as usual.
  93. 93Lobban et al- Analysed the results of 50 family therapy studies that had included an intervention to support relatives.
    - 60% of these studies reported a significant positive impact of the intervention on at least one outcome for category for relatives e.g. coping and problem solving skills, family functioning and relationship quality (including expressed emotion.)
    - However, the researchers also concluded that the methodological quality of the studies was generally poor, making it difficult to distinguish effective from ineffective interventions.
  94. 94Pharoah et al- Meta-analysis established that family therapy can be effective in improving clinical outcomes such as mental state and social functioning.
    - However, the authors suggest that the main reason for it's effectiveness may have less to do with any improvements in these clinical markers and more to do with the fact that it increases medication compliance. Patients are more likely to reap the benefits of medication because they're more likely to comply with their medication.
  95. 95TarrierSUPPORT FOR COMBINATIONS OF TREATMENTS (Diathesis-stress model)
    - 315 patients randomly allocated to a medication & CBT group, medication & supportive counselling, or a control group.
    - Patients in the 2 combination groups showed lower symptom levels than those in the control group (medication only) although there was no difference in rates of hospital readmission.
  96. 96Anderson and BushmanHORMONAL EXPLANATION FOR AGGRESSION
    - Men have higher testosterone levels than women and tend to show more physical aggression.
    - Male murderers outnumber female murderers by 10:1
  97. 97Oesterman et alHORMONAL EXPLANATION FOR AGGRESSION
    - Females do show aggression but it tends to be less physical and involves indirect attacks (e.g. insults, isolating others)
  98. 98van Honk et alHORMONAL EXPLANATION FOR AGGRESSION
    - Rather than making a person aggressive, testosterone may alter the way someone reacts to a stimulus
    - When young women were injected with testosterone, they showed a greater than usual increase in heart rate when they looked at angry faces
  99. 99Sapolsky et alHORMONAL EXPLANATION FOR AGGRESSION
    (Cause and effect issues)
    - Research has shown that testosterone (administered externally) increases subsequent aggressiveness, but aggressive encounters can cause increased secretion of testosterone.
  100. 100Higley, Suomi and LinnoilaNEURAL EXPLANATION FOR AGGRESSION (SEROTONIN)
    - Low levels of serotonin are associated with impulsive aggression in monkeys.
  101. 101Dolan, Anderson an DeakinNEURAL EXPLANATION FOR AGGRESSION (SEROTONIN)
    - Low serotonin levels are associated with assaults, self-injury and violent suicide in humans.
  102. 102Virkkunen et alNEURAL EXPLANATION FOR AGGRESSION (SEROTONIN)
    - Many studies have found low serotonin turnover in people with a history of violent behaviour (i.e. they have a normal amount of serotonin, but release only small amounts)
  103. 103Kruesi et alNEURAL EXPLANATION FOR AGGRESSION (SEROTONIN)
    - Found that children/adolescents with a history of aggression who had lowest serotonin turnover were most likely to get into trouble again for aggressive behaviour in the following two years.
  104. 104Davidson et alNEURAL EXPLANATION FOR AGGRESSION (SEROTONIN)
    - There is evidence that suddenly and temporarily lowering people's levels of serotonin (through diet or drugs) affects them in different ways.
    - People who are prone to depression become depressed whereas people prone to aggression show more aggressive behavior.
    - It may be that people who are frequently violent do not have a stronger urge to be aggressive, but have weaker mechanisms for inhibiting aggression.
  105. 105Potegal et alNEUROANATOMICAL EXPLANATION: AMYGDALA (THE LIMBIC SYSTEM)
    - There is evidence that one part of the Limbic System, the amygdala, influences aggression.
    - When the amygdala is stimulated directly in hamsters, they show signs of preparing to attack.
  106. 106Mark and ErvinNEUROANATOMICAL EXPLANATION: AMYGDALA (THE LIMBIC SYSTEM)
    - Reported the case study of an adult, Thomas, who had 'intermittent explosive disorder' after suffering brain damage.
    - He had outbursts of unprovoked violent behaviour, particularly towards his wife. -
    - After having surgery which deliberately destroyed part of his amygdala, he had no more violent episodes.
  107. 107GiancolaNEUROANATOMICAL EXPLANATION: PREFRONTAL CORTEX
    - People who have damage to the prefrontal cortex of the brain are more likely to fight or show threatening behaviour than other people, and they may show this on less provocation.
  108. 108Raine, Buchsbaum and LaCasseNEUROANATOMICAL EXPLANATION: PREFRONTAL CORTEX
    - Used PET scans to compare the brain activity of 41 convicted male murderers with 41 normal males (who were matching controls)
    - Found that the murderers did have different brain functioning compared to the normal controls in come areas.
    - Among other findings, the murderers had reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex and abnormal activity in the amygdala.
  109. 109Lyons et alGENETIC EXPLANATION FOR AGGRESSION
    - Found that MZ twins resembled each other much ore than DZ in adult crimes.
  110. 110Volk et alEVOLUTIONARY EXPLANATION
    - Argued that 'bad boy' characteristics associated with bullying are attractive to the opposite sex.
    - Thus, characteristics have been passed down, and bullying is a modern day expression of an adaptive evolved characteristic.
  111. 111Daly and WilsonEVOLUTIONARY EXPLANATION
    - Claim that men have evolved several different mate retention strategies to deter their female mate from committing adultery.
    - These range from vigilance to violence, but are fuelled by male sexual jealousy, that has evolved specifically to deal with the threat of paternal uncertainty.
  112. 112Dobash and DobashEVOLUTIONARY EXPLANATION
    - Sexual jealousy is supported by studies of battered women, where victims cite extreme sexual jealousy of partners as the major cause of violence against them.
  113. 113Shackleford et al (Procedure)EVOLUTIONARY EXPLANATION
    - Asked 461 men to complete questionaires about their use of 'mate retention behaviours' and their use of violence against partners.
    - Also asked a 2nd sample of 560 women to rate their use of ate retention strategies and their use of violence.
    - Finally, 107 married couples gave the same information concerning the husbands behaviour.
  114. 114Shackleford et al (Findings)EVOLUTIONARY EXPLANATION
    - Across all 3 samples, the researchers found certain male behaviours tended to be associated with the use of violence against women.
    - Men who were violent towards their partners also tended to use emotional manipulation (e.g. threatening to hurt themselves if their partner left them), to monopolise their partners' time (e.g. not letting her go out with them), and/or to punish their partner's infidelity (e.g. by becoming angry when she flirted with anyone else.)
  115. 115TinbergenETHOLOGICAL EXPLANATION
    - FAPS and IRMs
    - Showed this with male sticklebacks who will produce a fixed sequence of aggressive actions when another male enters its territory.
    - But, the sign stimulus is not the male, but rather the sight of its red underbelly.
    - If this is covered up, there is no attack.
  116. 116LorenzETHOLOGICAL EXPLANATION
    - Claimed that species who have evolved fearsome weapons (e.g. wolves' teeth and jaws) must have instinctive inhibitions not to use these against their own species. A fighting wolf will expose it's neck on submission, and the fight stops, so this must be instinctive inhibition.
    - Doves for example, are non-hunters and so haven't developed this instinctive inhibition but an simply fly away in a fight.
    - Lorenz feels humans are more like doves, but sadly can now develop weapons of mass destruction and have instinctive inhibition.
  117. 117LehrmanETHOLOGICAL EXPLANATION
    - Believed that Lorenz had underestimated the role of environmental factors. FAP tends not to be used within ethology now and rather is referred to as behaviour patterns to acknowledge the role of experience.
  118. 118Eibl-EibsfeldtETHOLOGICAL EXPLANATION
    - Suggests that humans have FAPs like smiling and the 'eyebrow flash' but believes that FAPs such as aggression are not adaptive in modern times.
    - Human behaviour is far more varied and less predictable than non-human species, so we don't respond in the same way to specific sign stimuli.
  119. 119Chagnon HoebelBENEFITS OF RITUALISTIC AGGRESSION
    > Chagnon - The Yanomamo of South America use chest pounding and club fighting to settle conflicts.
    > Hoebel found that Inuit eskimos use song duels to settle grudges and disputes.
  120. 120Brown et alTHE FRUSTRATION AGGRESSION HYPOTHESIS
    - Surveyed British holiday makers who were prevented from travelling by ferry to France because French fishing boats blocked the French port of Calais. There was an increase in hostile attitudes towards the French because of passengers frustration.
  121. 121Doob and SpearsTHE FRUSTRATION AGGRESSION HYPOTHESIS
    - Participants asked to imagine how they feel in different circumstances in which they may feel frustrated e.g. a bus going by without stopping.
    > RESULTS - Found that most people would feel angry in all of the frustrating situations.
  122. 122PastoreTHE FRUSTRATION AGGRESSION HYPOTHESIS
    - Distinguished between justified and unjustified frustration, by using different versions to Doob and Spears invlving both types of frustration.
    - E.g. A bus would not stop, and a bus which indicated an 'out of service message.'
    > RESULTS - Participants expressed much lower anger levels when displaying the 'out of service' message (justified) compared to the bus not stopping (unjustified).
  123. 123Russell Green (Procedure)THE FRUSTRATION AGGRESSION HYPOTHESIS
    - Male university students given the task of completing a jigsaw puzzle. Their level of frustration was experimentally manipulated in 1 of 3 ways:
    1) Jigsaw was impossible to solve
    2) Ran out of time to complete it due to an interfering confederate.
    3) Confederate insulted participants as they failed to complete the puzzle.
    - The next part of the study involved the participant giving electric shocks to the confederate when they made a mistake on another task.
  124. 124Russell Green (Findings)THE FRUSTRATION AGGRESSION HYPOTHESIS
    - The insulted participants gave the strongest shocks on average, followed by the interfered group, then the impossible task participants.
    - All 3 groups selected more intense shocks than a (non-frustrated) control group.
  125. 125BushmanTHE FRUSTRATION AGGRESSION HYPOTHESIS
    - 700 participants
    - Found that participants who vented their anger by repeatedly hitting a punch bag actually became more angry and aggressive rather than less.
    (2x more angry)
  126. 126BanduraSLT OF AGGRESSION
    - Bobo-doll study (see above in approaches section)
  127. 127Reifman et al- Conducted a study on aggressive behaviour shown by pitchers in baseball games.
    - Found that as temperatures increased, the likelihood that pitchers would display aggressive behaviour towards batters also increased.
    - Supports a need for a revised frustration-aggression hypothesis in that extreme temperatures, along with frustration tend to make people angry, which increases the likelihood of aggression.
  128. 128Williams- Studied children in British Columbia
    - They were looked at before TV was introduced and after
    - The physical and verbal aggression did increase.
    - There are other powerful influences as well as the media such as parental and cultural attitudes.
  129. 129Archer and Gartner- Found an increase in murders in the USA after WWII and Vietnam.
    - War promotes violence as a way of solving problems.
  130. 130Festinger et alDEINDIVIDUATION
    - 4 Female undergraduates
    - Delivered electric shocks to another student to 'aid learning.
    - Half of the participants wore bulky lab coats and hoods that hid their faces.
    - The others wore normal clothes with large name tags.
    - FINDINGS: Participants in the deindividuation condition were more likely to press a button that they believed would shock the victim in another room. They held the shock button down for twice a long as the identifiable participants.
  131. 131Zimbardo et alSTANFORD PRISON EXPERIMENT
    - Demonstrates deindividuation
    - The guards played a role (de-individuated state) and wore mirrored sunglasses to increase anonymity.
  132. 132Rehm et al- Agression in handball
    - Deindividuation was created by giving one team orange shirts whilst the other team wore own clothes.
    - In boys teams, uniformed teams were more aggressive than non-uniform.
    - In girl teams, no differences were found.
    - Researchers concluded that uniform -> loss of individuality -> deindividuation.
    - CONCLUSION - Anonymity creates de-individuation which leads to aggression.
  133. 133Postmes and SpearsDE-INDIVIDUATION THEORY OF AGGRESSION
    - Meta-analysis of over 60 studies, concluding there was insufficient support for the theory.
    - Neither de-individuation or anti-normative behaviour were found to be more common in large groups or crowded, anonymous settings.
  134. 134McCorkle et alDEPRIVATION MODEL
    - Studied 371 US prisons and found that situational factors such as overcrowding, lack of privacy and lack of meaningful activity all significantly influenced inmate on inmate and inmate on staff assaults.
  135. 135Franklin et alDEPRIVATION MODEL
    - Found a relationship between age of inmate and crowding.
    - A meta-analysis found that aggressive behaviour increased for crowding in younger inmates (18-25) more than older.
  136. 136WilsonHM WOODHILL PRISON
    - Set up 2 new units for violent prisoners that were less claustrophobic, less 'prison-like,' and gave a view to the outside.
    - They controlled temperature (not stiflingly hot), reduced noise, and masked it with radio music.
    - Found that assaults of prison staff and other inmates were virtually eradicated, providing powerful support for the roles of situational variables as a cause of prison violence.
  137. 137Harer and Steffensmier- Collected data from more 2400 inmates fro 58 prisons across the US and concluded that race, age and criminal history (importation factors) were the only significant predictors of prison violence, but none of the deprivation variables were significant (staff to prisoner ratios and security levels.)
  138. 138AdamsIMPORTATION MODEL
    - Found in American prisons black inmates were more likely to be associated with violent acts than white inmates.
    - The argument for this is that black prisoners tended to come from poorer backgrounds with higher crime rates, and so imported their cultural norms into the prison.
  139. 139Drury and DeLisi- Found that members of gangs prior to imprisonment were significantly more likely to commit various types of misconduct in prisons such as murder, hostage taking and assault with a deadly weapon.
  140. 140Mears et al- Compared street code belief systems and prison experiences of inmates.
    - They found that 'the code of the street' affects inmate violence.
    - This is particularly pronounced amongst those who lack family support and are involved with the gangs prior to their incrimination.
  141. 141Weisz and EarlsMEDIA AND AGGRESSION
    - Showed participants the film 'Straw Dogs' which contained a nasty rape scene.
    - Participants then watched a re-enactment of a rape trial.
    - Male viewers of 'Straw Dogs' showed greater acceptance of rape myths and sexual aggression than those male viewers who had not watched 'Straw Dogs'.
    - These participants showed less sympathy toward the rape victim in the trial and were less likely to find the defendant guilty.
    - Supports desensitization
  142. 142Berkowitz and AliotoMEDIA AND AGGRESSION
    - Participants who saw a film depicting aggression as vengeance (revenge) gave more (fake) electric shocks of longer duration to a confederate.
    - This suggests media violence may disinhibit aggressive behaviour when it is presented as justified.
  143. 143Fischer and GreitemeyerCOGNITIVE PRIMING
    - Found that participants who had been exposed to aggressive song lyrics about women were more likely to state negative qualities about women, and behaved more aggressively towards a female confederate than those participants who had heard neutral lyrics.
    - This procedure was repeated with female participants and 'men hating' song lyrics with similar results.
  144. 144Bjorkqvist- Found that children who were exposed to violent films compared to non-violent scored higher on ratings of physical aggression
    - These findings are consistent with field and lab studies and are also shown with aggressive thoughts and emotions.
  145. 145Huesmann et al- Studied 557 children from 1977 to 1992 (left with 329 ppts due to attrition (dropping out)) and found that habitual early exposure to TV violence predicted adult aggression in both genders.
    - This remained even when controlling for socioeconomic status, intelligence and differences in parenting styles.
  146. 146Bushman and Huesmann- Looked at 431 studies involving 68,000 participants.
    - They found a modest but significant effect size for exposure to media violence, (TV, video games, music and comic books) on aggressive behaviours, thoughts, feelings and arousal levels.
    - The short term effects of violent media were greater for adults and long term for children.
  147. 147Ferguson and Kilburn- Found that if violence to another person or violent crime is the measure of aggression used, then the relationship between exposure to media violence and aggressive behaviour is actually close to zero.
    - This suggests that studies are not representing all violence found in society and so the link between media and violence may not be as strong as has been claimed.
  148. 148Ferguson et al- Showed that the effects of violent media content on aggressive behaviour disappears if features such as trait aggression, family violence and mental health are taken into consideration.
    - This suggests that other risk factors may be the primary cause of aggressive behaviour, and as such, exposure to media violence is not a casual factor.
  149. 149Greitemeyer and MuggeVIOLENT VIDEO GAMES AND AGGRESSION
    - A meta-analysis of 98 studies since 2009 involving nearly 37,000 participants found a link between violent video game use and an increase in aggressive outcomes and a decrease in pro-social outcomes.
    - Suggests that violent video games do not only lead to aggression, but decrease pro-social cognitions such as helping and empathy.

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Flashcards with summaries of all key studies and researchers for AQA A-level psychology
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