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MEMORY

Sayar KHUDIYEVA Englisch 58 Karten

MEMORY

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  1. 1ALAN BADDELEY CODINGInformation is coded acoustically in STM and semantically, when his participents remebered a list of words and recalled them from short memory, they did worse in acoustic sounding words but after 20 mins they did worse with semantically sounding words.
  2. 2DIGIT SPANJacobs found the STM capacity by measuring digit span, eg a researcher reads out 4 digits and the participant calls it out in the same order and the researcher keeps adding digits until they cannot recall anymore which indicates their digit span. The mean span for numbers was 9.3
  3. 3MEMORY SPAN AND CUNKINGMiller made obs of everyday practice, he noted things that come in sevens eg days in a week, 7 deadly sins and thought the STM span was 7 items plus or minus 2. We do this by chunking grouping sets of items into chunks.
  4. 4DURATION OF STMPeterson and Peterson tested 24 students in 8 tests, they were given 3 letters and 3 digit number and told to count backwards to prevent mental rehearsal of the letters. They were told to stop at 3,6,9,12,15,18 secs, after 3, recall was 80% but after 18 it was 3%, so STM duration is 18 secs without rehearsal
  5. 5DURATION OF LTM BAHRICKStudied 292 american participents age 17-74. their highschool yearbooks were used for recal eg 1, photo recognition of 50 photos, some from the yearbook 15yrs after grad were 90% in photos, after 48 yrs it was 70%, and 2, recalling names of class, free call for 15+ was 60% and 48+ was 30%, LTM can last forever.
  6. 6MULTI STORE MODELAtkinson and Shiffin's MSM describes how information flows through the memory system and it suggests memory is made from three stores linked by processing.
  7. 7MSM DIAGRAMMSM DIAGRAM
  8. 8SENSORY REGISTERIt is stimuli from the environment, the sensory memory stores has one for each sense. Coding in each store depends on the sense, eg store coding for visual information is iconic memory and coding acoustically is echoic memory. There are other sensory stores for touch, taste and smell.
  9. 9SENSORY MEMORY DURATIONDuration of material in SRs is very brief, less that half a second but SRs have a very high capacity as over one hundred million cells in one eye each storing data. Information passes further into the memory system only if you pay attention to it
  10. 10SHORT TERM MEMORYInformation in STM is coded mainly acoustically and lasts 18 seconds unless rehearsed, it can only store certain things before forgetting them. Maintenance rehearsal helps us keep information in our STM as long as we rehearse it, it will go into our LTM
  11. 11LONG TERM MEMORYMemory in the LTM has been rehearsed for a prolonged time, mostly coded semantically, duration can last a lifetime and practically unlimited. According to the Memory Store Model, when we want to recall info from LTM it has to be transferred back into STM by a process called retrieval.
  12. 12TULVINGTulving recognised that the multi process model's view of the long term memory is too simplistic and inflexible. He proposed that there are 2 LTM stores containing different types of information.
  13. 13EPISODIC MEMORYAbility to recall complex events from memory, you can recall when they happened, they also store info about how events relate to each other, memories people, places, objects and behaviours. You have to make a conscious effort to recall episodic memories. Eg concerts.
  14. 14SEMANTIC MEMORYContains knowledge of the world, meaning of words, tastes etc, it isn't time stamped, its less personal and more about facts, constantly being added onto, has immense capacity, it is less vulnerable to distortion and forgetting compared to episodic memory. Eg band facts
  15. 15PROCEDURAL MEMORYThis is our memory for actions, skills and how we do things, we can recall this without conscious memory or much effort through practice, eg playing a guitar solo.
  16. 16WORKING MEMORY MODELBaddeley and Hitch explained aspects of STM, how it is organised and functions. the WMM is concerned with "mental space" that is active when we are storing and manipulating info. It consists of 4 components which is all qualitatively different in terms of coding and capacity
  17. 17CENTRAL EXECUTIVEThe CE has a "supervisory" role, monitors incoming data, focuses and divides our limited attention and allocaes "slave systems" to tasks. It has limited processing capacity and doesn't store information
  18. 18PHONOLOGICAL LOOPIt deals with auditory info and preserves the order in which info arrives, it is subdivided into:
    The Phonological Store stores the words we hear.
    The Articulatory Process: allows maintenance rehearsal, the capacity is 2 seconds worth.
  19. 19VISUO-SPATIAL SKETCHPADIt is the second slave system which stores visual and spatial info when required, has limited capacity which is around 3-4 objects, Logie subdivided the VSS into the Visual Cache - stores visual data and the Inner Scribe which records the arrangements of objects in the visual field
  20. 20EPISODIC BUFFERIt is a temporary store for information integrating the visual , spatial and verbal info possessed by other stores and maintaining a record of events that are happening. It can be seen as the storage component of the central executive and has limited capacity of 4 chunks. It links working memory to LTM and perception.
  21. 21WORKING MEMORY MODEL PHOTOWORKING MEMORY MODEL PHOTO
  22. 22INTERFERENCEA type of forgetting when two pieces of information disrupt each other resulting in forgetting one or both pieces of info which can explain forgetting long term memory as it is stored but we can't get access. there are 2 types of interference.
  23. 23PROACTIVE INTERFERENCEWhen an older memory disrupts newer memories.
  24. 24RETROACTIVE INTERFERENCEWhen a new memory interferes with an older one.
  25. 25RESEARCH ON MEMORYMcGeoch and McDonald studied RI by changing similarities between 2 sets , participents had to learn 10 words until they could remeber them, then learned a new list, there were 6 groups for it.
  26. 26GROUPSGROUP 1: synonyms
    2: antonyms
    3: unrelated words
    4: consonant syllables
    5: 3 digit numbers
    6: rest (control condition)
  27. 27FINDINGSmost similar words to original word set had the worst recall, shows interference is strongest when memories are similar, which could be due to PI or RI.
  28. 28WHY WE FORGETRetreival failure of cues (trigger of info)
  29. 29TULVING'S ENCODING SPECIFICITY PRINCIPLEa cue has to be present at encoding (learning) and retrieval,
  30. 30NON MEANINGFUL CUEScontext-dependent forgetting: recall depends on external cues (weather)
    State-dependent forgetting: recall depends on external clue (crying)
  31. 31GODDEN + BADDELEY STUDY : CONTEXT-DEPENDENT FORGETTINGDoes training on land hinder deep sea divers underwater, learnt list of words either underwater or on land and asked to recall either underwater or on land, created 4 conditions.
  32. 32THE FOUR CONDITIONS-learn on land: recall on land
    -learn underwater: recall on land
    -learn on land: recall underwater
    -learn underwater: recall underwater
  33. 33FINDINGSAccurate recall was 40% in non matching conditions, same conditions matched. external clues available at learning were different from the ones available at recall, leading to retrieval failure.
  34. 34CARTER + CASSADAY RESEARCH - STATE-DEPENDENT FORGETTINGGave anti hayfever drugs to patients, which has a mild sedative effect so internal physicological state isn't normal, they had to learn words and prose then recall info in 4 conditions.
  35. 35CONDITIONSlearn on drug - recall on drug
    learn not on drug - recall on drug
    learn on drug - recall not on drug
    learn not on drug - recall not on drug
  36. 36FINDINGSMismatched conditions had worse performance on the memory test, so when cues are absent eg drowsy recalling but alert when learning, you are prone to forget.
  37. 37LEADING QUESTIONS RESEARCH LOFTUS + PALMER45 students watched car accidents and asked questions ab it. A critical question asked to describe how fast the cars were going: "About how fast were the cars going before they hit each other". In the 5 groups, a different verb was used instead of "hit": contacted, bumped, collided and smashed
  38. 38FINDINGSThe contacted group's mean speed was 31.8mph, the smashed group was 40.5mph, therefore leading questions can make the eyewitness's recall biased.
  39. 39WHY DO LEADING QUESTIONS AFFECT EWTThe wording of questions do not affect memory but influence how they decide to answer, eg the smashed group encouraged them to choose a higher speed.
  40. 40SUBSTITUTION EXPLANATION RESEARCH LOFTUS + PALMERThey conducted a second experiment that supported the "substitution explanation" which proposes the wording of a question changes the participents memory, the smashed group reported seeing broken glass when there was none compared to the hit group, the critical verb altered memory
  41. 41RESEARCH ON POST-EVENT DISCUSSIONEyewitnesses to a crime may discuess their shared expereince and this is clalled "post-event discussion"
  42. 42POST EVENT DISCUSSION RESEARCH GABBERTParticipants were studied in pairs, they watched the same crime video but in different pov's, so they saw things the other didn't see. Both then discussed what they saw before individually completing a test of recall.
  43. 43FINDINGS71% mistakenly recalled aspects of the event that they did not see but picked up in discussion, however the control group where there was no discussion was 0%, this is evidence of memory conformity.
  44. 44WHY DOES POST EVENT DISCUSSION AFFECT EWT?One explanation is memory contamination, when memories are discussed with others, it can alter or distort it. Another explanation is memory conformity, Gabbert concluded witnesses often go along with each other to win social approval bc, but the actual memory is unchanged unlike MC.
  45. 45ANXIETY'S NEGATIVE EFFECT ON RECALLAnxiety creates physiological arousal in our bodies, which prevents us from paying attention to important cues. One approach to studying anxiety and eyewitness testimony is the effect of the presence of weapons which creates anxiety reducing a witness's recall for details of events.
  46. 46ANXIETY CUES RESEARCH JOHNSON + SCOTTThe participents thought they were taking part in a lab study, they were seated in a low anxiety condition where they heard a casual convo in the next room and saw a man walk past w a pen and grease on his hands, others heard a argument and breaking glass as a man walked out holding a blood covered knife a high anxiety condition.
  47. 47FINDINGSThe participants picked out the man from a set of 50 photos, 49% of group 1 could identify the man and 33% of group 2 recognized him. The tunnel theory of memory argues that people have enhanced memory for central events and they focus on the weapon bc of anxiety .
  48. 48ANXIETY'S POSITIVE EFFECT ON RECALLseeing a stressful event can lead to physiological arousal and lead to fight or flight, which increases alertness which improves memory.
  49. 49YUILLE + CUTSHALL REAL LIFE STUDYA gun shop the owner shot a thief dead and 13/21 witnesses took part in their study. Their interviews were compared 5 months after the police interviews, accuracy was determined by detail and they were asked to rate how stressed they felt from 0-7 and if they had any emotional problems since (sleep probs)
  50. 50FINDINGSLittle change in accuracy , they were very accurate expect for small points eg height
    + weight. Participents who reported more stress were the most accurate and int shows in the real world, anxiety can make ewt more accurate.
  51. 51—The relationship between emotional arousal and performance looks like an inverted u. Therefore performance will increase with stress to a certain point.The relationship between emotional arousal and performance looks like an inverted u. Therefore performance will increase with stress to a...
  52. 52EXPLAINING CONTRADICTORY FINDINGSMeta analysed 21 studies of EWT and noted contradictory findings on effects of anxiety, when we witness a crime, we are emo+phys aroused (stress + fight or flight) . Lower levels produce worse recall and higher levels produce more accurate recall, however it has a limit so if there is more arousal, recall declines rapidly.
  53. 53FISHER + GEISELMANArgued EWT can be improved if police had better techniques when interviewing, which should be based on pyschological insights into how memory works which is the "cognitive interview" which has 4 main techniques.
  54. 541. REPORT EVERYTHINGEncouraged to include every detail even if it's irrelevent, it can be important or trigger other memories.
  55. 552. REINSTATE THE CONTEXTReturn to the crime scene in your mind, imagine the environment and emotions (related to context-dependent forgetting)
  56. 563. REVERSE THE ORDERRecall event from different order, which is done to prevent people reporting expectations of how it should've happened and not what actually happened + prevents dishonesty (hard to be untruthful if they have to reverse it)
  57. 574. CHANGE PERSPECTIVEWitnesses should recall event from other people's perspective eg the perpertrator, done to disrupt expectations and effect of schema on recall.
  58. 58ENHANCED COGNITIVE INTERVIEW FISHERHe added some elements in CI to focus on social dynamics of interaction eg interviewer need to know when to make or break eye contact, reducing eyewitness anxiety, minimizing distractions, getting the EW to speak slowly and asking open ended questions

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Karteikarten am MEMORY, erstellt von Sayar KHUDIYEVA am 09/07/2021.
Erstellt von
Sayar KHUDIYEVA
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