Karteikarten
Memory
Karten in diesem Stapel (30)
- 1MemoryCapacity - The amount of information that can be stored
Duration – The length of time that information can be held for
Encoding – The way information is changed so it can be stored.
Acoustic encoding – by sound (the mind’s ear)
Visual encoding – by vision (the mind’s eye)
Semantic coding – by meaning - 2Short Term - Duration - Peterson and Peterson Participants were presented with a trigram (eg- LDI, CTG) which they then had to recall after a delay of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18 seconds. During the delay rehearsal was prevented by participants counting down from a random number in threes. Findings - 3 second delay = 90% success. 6 second delay = 50% success. 18 second delay = less than 10% success.Short Term - Capacity - Jacobs and Miller
Participants were presented with a sequence of letters or digits containing three items which they had to recall. This then increased by one item each time until they could no longer recall the sequence.
Findings - Average number of items recalled was between five and nine - 3Long Term - Duration - Bahrick Ex-high school pupils were asked to: a) Freely recall as many names of people they went to school with as possible. b) Identify people who they went to school with from photographs. Findings - After 34 years of leaving high school there was 90% accuracy in both conditions and after 48 years of leaving high school this decreased to 70% accuracy for free recall and 40% accuracy for face recognition.Short and Long Term - Encoding - Baddely
Participants were given four sets of words that were either acoustically similar or acoustically dissimilar
Participants were also given words that were either semantically similar or semantically dissimilar
Participants then had to recall immediately or after a 20 minute task
Findings - Participants had problems recalling acoustically similar words when recalling the word list immediately (from the STM). If recalling after an interval (from LTM) they had problems with semantically similar words. - 4—Sensory Memory
Information from our environment initially goes into the sensory memory.
If attention is focused on it, the information is encoded and transferred to STM
- 5Short Term Memory Information is in a ‘fragile’ state here, and will decay if not rehearsed (maintenance rehearsal), because the STM has a limited capacity and a short duration. Therefore without rehearsal the information is forgottenLong Term Memory
Information is moved from STM to LTM through elaborative rehearsal meaning the more it’s rehearsed the better it’s remembered.
- 6Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) Gave participants about 20 words and asked them to recall they tend to remember words from the beginning (primacy effect) and the end (recency effect). This happens because words at the beginning are the best rehearsed and transferred to LTM. And the last words are still in the STM
- 7Shallice and Warrington (1970) Case study of K.F. who suffered brain damage because of motorbike accident. STM impaired but LTM intact.Butters and Cernak
Korsakoff’s Syndrome (Chronic alcoholism) which results in severe LTM disorder but has little affect on STM. This suggests separate and distinct memory stores. - 8Primacy recency effect – first (primacy) and last words (recency) recalled, suggesting first words had been transferred to LTM. Last words were still in the STM. Therefore showing support for separate storesShallice and Warrington – bike accident, STM impaired /LTM intact, therefore evidence for separate stores.
Butters and Cernak studied Korsakoff’s Syndrome, which results in severe LTM disorder but has little affect on STM. Therefore shows support for the argument there are separate stores. - 9Strengths The model does provide an account of memory in terms of both structure and process. Supported by research e.g Shalice and Warrington’s research. It has clear testable predictionsLimitations
The model is oversimplified. It assumes there is only one LTM and STM. This has been disproved by evidence from brain damaged patients.
Rehearsal is not the only way to learn, or transfer information to long term memory. It can happen through incidental learning. - 10—Baddeley & Hitch (1974)
Rather than the STM being a single inflexible store, Baddeley and Hitch suggested that the STM was made up of several subsystems, each having a specialised function.
Believed memory is not just one store but a number of different stores
Focuses on STM ONLY
It suggests a system involving active processing and short-term storage of information.
LTM is a passive store that holds previously learned material for use by the STM when needed.
- 11Central Executive The ‘manager’ of working memory Decides how attention is directed Coordinates the slave systems (phonological loop and visual spatial sketchpad). Has a limited capacity Said to be the most important componentPhonological Loop - Baddeley(1986)
The phonological store (the inner ear) Auditory information enters memory here but can only be stored for around 2 seconds if not passed through the articulatory loop.
The articulatory control system: (the inner voice) Auditory information is rehearsed here sub vocally (silently) in order to be remembered
- 12Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad Holds visual (what things look like) and spatial (relationship between things) information.– Has a limited capacity Processes visual information in its component form, e.g. as shape, colour, size etc. It also considers spatial arrangement of shapes etcEpisodic Buffer
General storage space for both acoustic and visual information
It integrates information from the central executive, the phonological loop, the visual sketchpad and the long-term memory.
Has a limited capacity - 13Baddeley (1986) Asked participants to remember a list of numbers whilst carrying out a verbal reasoning task (e.g. BA - A follows B – true or false?) If STM is a unitary (single store) as proposed by the multi-store model, and has a capacity of around 7, then as task 1 reached 7 digits there would be no capacity left to carry out task 2. In fact this was not the case. Both tasks could be performed at the same time.Central Executive - Bunge et al (2000)
Found that when Ps were doing a dual-task, fMRI scans showed significantly more activation
This shows that the increased attentional demands of the two simultaneous tasks increased brain activity
This provides support for the proposed role of the central executive as the aspect which directs attention and allocates resources - 14Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad - Baddeley Participants were given a visual tracking task: track a moving line with a pointer at the same they were given one of two tasks: 1. To describe the angle of the letter F 2. To perform a verbal taskPhonological Loop -
According to WMM it is much more difficult to recall the second list as the phonological loop can rehearse the shorter words quicker; therefore more of list one can be stored and recalled
However if participants are given an articulatory suppression task, e.g. saying ‘la, la, la…’ (which fills the phonological loop), neither short words nor long words can be rehearsed and both tasks suffer - 15Strengths Much more detailed information about the processes involved in short term memory making it superior to the multi-store model in this respect. Highlights that memory is an active process rather than being passive. Supporting research ( Baddeley, K.F case study, pet scans)Limitations
It only looks at short term memory- there is no explanation about how information is transferred between short and long term memory.
Very little is known about the decision making activities of the central executive. - 16Hitch & Baddeley (1974) Found that when two simultaneously performed tasks use the same component of working memory, performance on those tasks suffers They also found that when two tasks involve different parts of working memory performance on those tasks does not suffer These findings support the existence of the qualitatively different sub-components of working memory as proposed by the modelShallice & Warrington (1970)
Found that patient KF had difficulties recalling auditory information from STM but not visual information
This suggests that his damage mainly affected the phonological loop as he appeared to be able to use the visuo-spatial sketch pad
This also supports the proposed idea of multiple components to STM, as proposed by the working memory model - 17Most studies of brain damage are case studies; whilst case studies provide a lot of detail, the subjects may have unique characteristics which mean that they are not representative of anyone else except themselves It is also not possible to make before and after comparisons of their memory deficits The trauma of the brain injury may have resulted in numerous changes in behaviour These limitations undermine the extent to which we can rely on studies of patients with brain damage to evaluate the working memory modelClarification of the central executive
It could be argued that the role of the CE is a little vague
What exactly is ‘directing attention’ and ‘allocating resources’?
It is possible that the CE, like the other aspects of the model, is also not unitary - 18Questionnaire A list of standardised set of questions is given to each respondent; they give their answers in writing Gets you lots of data quickly. Gives you an insight into people’s views, opinions, attitudes, past experiences and specific scenarios. But only if they answer accurately!Constructing a questionnaire
Decide which attitudes, behaviours or traits you want to measure.
Decide whether you want qualitative or quantitative data.
Decide which sorts of questions you will ask.
Pilot and modify the questionnaire - 19Open Questions Allow respondents to answer however they want Generate qualitative data - numerical data, measurements of quantity or amountClosed Questions
Restrict respondent to a predetermined set of responses
Generate quantitative data - rich in detail or description, usually in textual or narrative form - 20Qualitative Data Rich in detail Allows for in-depth analysis Difficult to analyse Difficult to compare people or groupsQuantitative Data
Easier to analyse (e.g. statistically)
Easier to compare people or groups
Not detailed and potentially superficial - 21Things to consider Clarity - Questions must be clear so that the respondents can understand and answer the questions. Bias - Questions must not be written in a biased or leading way otherwise the results will not be accurate. A leading question may mean respondents don’t give their own opinion but are swayed by the phrasing of the question.Different types of interview
Structured: set format of standardised questions
Semi-structured: set questions but these can be varied and expanded upon
Unstructured: No set format for the questions, allows interviewer to follow the natural progression of the conversation - 22What is cognitive interview? This is a police technique for interviewing witnesses to a crime, which encourages them to recreate the original context in order to increase the accessibility of stored information A method of interviewing based on techniques to improve memory recall To reduce leading questionsFisher and Geiselman’s (1992)
1. REPORT EVERYTHING - report every detail you can remember even if it seems trivial.
2. CONTEXT REINSTATEMENT - mentally recalling the context of the event. For example, recall the scene, the weather, what you were wearing and what you were thinking and feeling.
3. RECALL FROM CHANGED PERSPECTIVE - describe the event as it would have been seen from different viewpoints, not just your own.
4. RECALL IN REVERSE ORDER - report the event in several different orders, moving backwards and forwards in time. - 23Eye Witness Testimony - The witness encodes the information in to LTM - The witness retains the information for a period of time - The witness retrieves the information from storageLoftus and Palmer (1974)
To investigate how information provided to a witness after an event will influence their memory of that event
Laboratory experiment
Independent measures design
IV = Verb used
DV = The estimate of speed - 24Loftus and Palmer - Experiment 1 45 student participants were shown short video clips They were split into 5 groups, with 9 participants in each one All of the participants were asked: ‘About how fast were the cars going when they ________ each other’ Each group was given a different verb to fill in the blank. These verbs were ‘smashed, collided, bumped, hit or contacted’. Therefore the independent variable was the verb used. The dependent variable was the estimate of speed given by the participants
- 25Loftus and Palmer - Experiment 2 150 student participants were shown a short film that showed a multi-vehicle car accident and then they were asked questions about it. The participants were split into 3 groups (with 50 in each group). One group was asked: ‘How fast were the cars going when they hit each other?’ The second was asked: ‘How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other?’ The third group was not asked about the speed of the vehicles One week later, all participants returned and were asked: ‘Did you see any broken glass?’ There was no broken glass in the film.
- 26Pilot Study A trial run of a research study Involving only a few participants Conducted to test any aspect of the research design, with a view to making improvements before conducting the full research studyYuille and Cutshall
Witnesses of a real life incident (a gun shooting outside a gun shop in Canada) had remarkable accurate memories of a stressful event involving weapons.
A thief stole guns and money, but was shot six times and died.
The police interviewed witnesses, and thirteen of them were re-interviewed four months later. Recall was found to be accurate, even after a long time, and two misleading questions inserted by the research team had no effect on recall accuracy. - 27Yerkes – Dodson LawWeapon Focus
This refers to an eyewitness’s concentration on a weapon to the exclusion of other details of a crime. In a crime where a weapon is involved, it is not unusual for a witness to be able to describe the weapon in much more detail than the person holding it.
- 28Loftus et al [1987] Loftus used two conditions One condition involved a weapon The other condition did not involve a weapon In both conditions P’s heard a discussion in an adjoining room Condition [1] a man emerged holding a pen with grease on his hands Condition [2] P’s heard a heated conversation and a man emerged holding a paper knife covered in blood The participants were later asked to identify the man from a set of 50 photographs with the result that 49% correctly identified the man holding the pen, but only 33% could identify the man with the blood stained knife.However, a study by Yuille and Cutshall (1986) contradicts the importance of weapon focus in influencing eyewitness memory.
- 29Does age effect the accuracy of Eye Witness Testimonies? With a heightened concern over child abuse children are becoming more evident in the court room so there is a need to establish their credibility as a witness. The same applies to the credibility to elderly people.Own age bias
Research is criticised for ignoring the possibility that P’s may have superior memory for faces of their own age group
Many studies have used college students who are asked to correctly identify the faces of similar aged targets
Studies using older P’s have also used photographs of college aged individuals - 30Valentine and Coxon (1997) 3 groups of participants watched a video of a kidnapping. They were then asked a series of leading and non-leading questions about what they had seen. Both the elderly people and the children gave more incorrect answers to non-leading questions. Children were misled more by leading questions than the adults or the elderly age has an effect on the accuracy of eyewitness testimonyThis has implications in law when children or elderly people are questioned. However the experiment was artificial and so wasn't as emotionally arousing as the same situation would have been in real life - the study lacks external validity.
The study could have seemed like an experiment into how well people remember things from TV, which isn't the same as real life
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- A Levels Psychology (PSYA1) Karteikarten am Memory, erstellt von 08shunt.gemma am 18/12/2014.
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