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- 1What are the two theories in the formation of relationships?Reward/Need Satisfaction Theory and Similarity Theory.
- 2Discuss the reward/need satisfaction theory. Reward/Punishment Attraction through association.Byrne and Clore
- We are attracted to people who we find satisfying to be with. Most stimuli in our lives can be viewed as being rewarding or punishing in some way. The sort of thing we find rewarding tend to reflect our unmet needs (eg the need for company, financial security, attractive partner). Mutual attraction occurs when each partner meets the other person's needs.
- Reward/Punishment: Rewarding stimuli will produce positive feelings in us (make us happy) and punishing stimuli lead to negative feelings. According to the principles of operant conditioning we are likely to repeat any behaviour that leads to a desirable outcome and avoid any that doesn't.
- Byrne and Clore's theory suggest that we enter into relationships because the presence of some individuals is directly associated with reinforcements which makes them more attractive to us.
- Attraction through association: we are attracted to people who are associated with pleasant events. They acquire positive value because of their association with something else that makes us happy (classical conditioning). - 3Discuss other factors within Byrne and Clore's reward/need satisfaction theory.- Proximity: Physical closeness, we are social animals and need to be with others affiliation. More likely to meet and therefore form a relationship. The more often people are exposed to an object the more positively they evaluate the object. Humans like familiar things as they make us feel safe and happy - rewarding.
- Exposure/Familiarity: Proximity increases possibility of interaction (Exposure) which leads to familiarity. We like familiar things and find them rewarding. Moreland & Beach, 4 woman attended classes, 0,5,10 and 15 times. More classes she attended more favourable her ratings.
- Physical attractiveness: Dino et al said we think attractive looking people have more attractive personalities and we are rewarded with kudos of being with an attractive person. Teachers judge attractive students as more intelligent than unattractive students (Clifford + Walster) - 4Discuss the Similarity Theory within the formation of relationships.Byrne, Clore and Smeaton
- Similarity promotes liking, according to this model we first sort potential partners for dissimilarity, avoiding those whose personality/attitude is different from ours. Then from those remaining, we can then choose the ones who are most similar to ourselves. We are more likely to form relationships with people similar to ourselves.
- Personality: We are more likely to be attracted to others who have similar rather than dissimilar complementary personality traits. However research suggests that similarity is more often the rule, particularly in long term relationships. Caspi & Herbener found that married couples with similar personalities tend to be happier than couples with less similar personalities.
- Attitude: If partners' attitudes towards important issues differ, the process of attitude alignments may occur, as one or both partners modify their attitudes to produce similarity.
:) Research support, pairs selected based on attitudes, half with similar attitudes and the other dissimilar. Highly similar pairs were more attracted to each other. - 5What did Veitch and Griffitt find?:) Placed participants in a waiting room where they listened to either good or bad news with a stranger present. When they were asked to rate the stranger present the degree of liking was related to he news they had been listening to.
- 6What did Grifitt and Guay find?Reward/Punishment/Attraction through association.
Ppts were rated on a creative task by an experimenter, if rated positively they liked the experimenter more. Ppts had to say how much they liked an onlooker. The onlooker was rated more highly in the condition where the performance of the ppt has been positively evaluated by the experimenter. In fact ppts rated both individuals (experimenter and onlooker the same) - 7What did Rosenbaum find?Suggested that dissimilarity rather than similarity was the more important factor in determining whether a relationship will form. This dissimilarity-repulsion hypothesis has been tested in a number of cultures e.g Singh + Tan in Singapore and Drigotas in the USA. These studies established that the participants were first attracted to each other because of similarity of attitudes but as they got to know eachother better, those who discovered more dissimilarities than similarities became less attracted to each other.
- 8List some evaluation points for the formation of relationships.:( Cultural/Individual differences (IDA). The theory doesn't account for cultural and gender differences in the formation of relationships suggesting that it is not a universal explanation. Lott found that in many cultures women are more focused on the needs of others rather than receiving reinforcement.
:( Mundance Realism/ Low ecological validity - most of the studies carried out in this area are laboratory studies, and therefore do not necessarily show that
the principles apply to real life.
:( Does not account for unrewarding relationships and explain why some individuals choose to stay or are attracted to those.
:) Caspi + Herbener some studies have been conducted on real - life couples and have tended to support these claims.
:) The theory has face validity, is supported by everyday experiences.
:) Accounts for research findings - explains why proximity similarity and physical attractiveness are important factors. - 9What are the two theories in regards to the maintenance of romantic relationships?Social exchange theory and equity theory
- 10Who came up with the social exchange theory and what are its features?Thibault and Kelly
- Profit and Loss: individuals attempt to maximise their rewards and minimise their costs. In our society, people exchange resources with the expectation (or at least the hope) that they will earn a 'profit'. Rewards include: being cared for, companionship and sex. Costs may include: effort, financial investment and time wasted. Commitment to a relationship is dependent on its profitability, with less profitable relationships being more vulnerable to termination.
- Comparison level: this involves comparing the relationship with a general expectation of how rewarding relationships are. It is the product of experiences in previous relationships plus expectations of current relationships. If potential profit from new relationship exceeds out CL, the relationship will be judged as worthwhile and the person will be seen as attractive. If final result is negative (Profit less than CL) the person seems less attractive.
- Comparison level for alternatives: the person weighs up a potential increase in rewards from a different partner minus any costs associated w ending CR - 11Who came up with the equity theory and what does it propose?Walster et al
- Inequity and distress: people strive to achieve fairness in relationships and feel distressed if they perceive unfairness. Inequitable relationships exist when a person perceives that they; give a great deal in a relationship and get little in return or receive a great deal and gaining little in return. Both are inequitable relationships and would leave them feeling dissatisfied. The greater the inequity the greater the dissatisfaction.
- Ratio of input and output: An equitable relationship is one where one partner's benefits minus their costs equals the other partner's benefits minus their costs. Perception of inequality in a relationship motivates a person to try to restore it (e.g by changing perceptions to relative inputs and outputs) or end the relationship. - 12What did Rusbult ad Martz find?Explained why some people stay in abusive relationships. They argue that when investments are high (e.g children, financial security) and alternatives are low (e.g nowhere to live, no money) this might be considered profit situation and explains why someone might remain in an abusive relationship
(in regards to social equity theory) - 13What did Simpson et al find?Asked participants to rate members of the opposite sec in terms of attractiveness; those participants who gave lower ratings were already in a relationship.
- 14What is a main criticism of the social equity theory?Concerns a selfish nature, the claim that people are only motivated to maintain in relationships out of selfish concerns. It I possible that the principles of social exchange theory apply only in individualist cultures, which are characterised by individual concerns.
- 15Why is there cultural bias in regards to social equity theory?Moghaddam
Argues that such 'economic' theories only applies to western relationships. The more short term a relationship is the more relevance in being concerned with give and take. Long term relationships however, more likely to value security over profit. Suggests that SET doesn't represent a universal explanation of maintenance. - 16What doesn't the social exchange theory explain?Why people leave relationships despite having no alternative, nor does it suggest how great the disparity in CL has to be for it to become unacceptable.
- 17Who challenged the social exchange theory?Agryle
Who challenged this theory by saying that people only monitor this cost and reward system after they become dissatisfied. - 18What did Stafford and Canary find?Asked over 200 couples to complete questionnaire measuring relationship satisfaction. Satisfaction highest by couples who perceived their relationship as equitable. Followed by over benefited partners and lowest for under benefitted partners.
- 19What did Hatfield find?Interviewed over 500 students about equity in their relationships. Three months later the inequitable relationships were more likely to have ended.
- 20What did Clark and Mills find?They argue that a concern for equity may only characterise relationships between colleagues or business associates rather than relationships between friends or lovers. They claim that romantic relationships are governed by a desire to respond to the needs of the partner rather than about any concerns of equity.
- 21What was found about gender differences in regards to the social equity theory?Steil and Weltman (IDA)
Studied married working couples. Found that the woman generally rated their husbands' careers as more important than their own. They concluded that because women tend to seek less for themselves in a relationship, this makes equity a less relevant explanation of relationship satisfaction in real-life relationships. Therefore, it challenges the universality of equity as a determinant of relationship satisfaction. - 22Who came up with the three main reasons for relationship breakdown? and what were they?Duck
- Lack of skills: some people lack interpersonal skills to make relationships mutually satisfying. These include being poor conversationalist and poor at indicating interest in others. Others then find them unrewarding because it leads your partner to perceive you as not being interested in maintaining the relationship and so the relationship breaks down.
- Lack of stimulation: There is evidence that boredom or belief that the relationship is not going anywhere is often the reason used when breaking up (Baxter). People expect relationships to develop and grow and then they do not, this is enough to cause to break it off.
- Maintenance difficulties: Although enduring romantic relationships can survive the strain of long distance relationships, evidence has dominantly shown that distance can put strain on relationships (Shaver et al). Some maintenance of relationships is difficult to manage as partners don't see eachother often. This places strain on the relationship which may cause a break up. - 23Discuss the process/model of breakdown of relationships.Duck and Rollie
1. Breakdown: one of the partners becomes distressed with the relationship -> dissatisfied.
2. Intrapsychic processes: characterised by brooding focus on relationship, social withdrawal and some resentment. Nothing said to partner although dissatisfaction may be expressed in other ways e.g lack of interest in sex. think about the relationship, why they're dissatisfied, costs of ending relationship, possible rewards, possible alternative partners.
3. Dydadic Processes: People confront partners and discuss feelings and the future. Reassessment of goals and commitment. Relationship may be saved.
4. Social Processes: going public with dissatisfaction - friends families, who will offer advice, help in mending the disputes, may speed partners towards dissolution through revelations.
5. Grave-Dressing Process - Partners construct their own account of why the relationship failed, putting them in a favourable light. .
6. Resurrection Process - both partners prepare themselves for new relationships, may redefine identity and build self esteem learning on mistakes. - 24What did Boekhout find?Found that extramarital affairs were typically a direct reaction to a perceived lack of skills or stimulation in the existing relationship. They asked undergraduates to rate various sexual + emotional reasons for men and women to be unfaithful in a committed relationship. They judged sexual boredom and the need for excitement as the main reasons for infidelity among males, and lack of attention and emotional dissatisfaction as the main reasons for infidelity among females.
- 25What did Rohfling find?:( Long distance romantic relationships and long distance friendships are more common than we think. One study found that 70% of students sampled had experienced at least one long distance romantic relationship and 90% said they had experienced one long distance friendship.
- 26What did Holt and Stone find?:( Despite this long distant relationships are increasingly common in our society. They found there was little decrease in relationship satisfaction provided that lovers are able to reunite regularly. This suggests that people use different management strategies to successfully maintain long-distance relationships.
- 27What was found about real world application in regards to the breakdown of romantic relationships?The importance of social skills deficits in relationship breakdown has led to the development of training programmes to enhance relationship skills. Cine et al, compared couples who had had received relationship skill training with those who did not. The 'trained' couples later reported much higher marital quality compared to couples in the control group.
- 28What gender differences were found in regards to the breakdown of romantic relationships?Women are more likely to stress unhappiness and incompatibility as reasons for dissolution (Brehm + Kassin)
Men are more likely to cite 'sexual withholding' - 29What did Tashiro and Frazier find ?::) Surveyed undergraduates who have recently broken up with a romantic partner. They typically reported that they experienced emotional distress and personal growth. Breaking up with their partner had given them insights to themselves and a clever idea about future partners (resurrection process)
- 30Why is the breakdown model important?As it emphasises the value of communication in relationship breakdown. Paying attention to what people say and the ways in which they talk about their relationship gives a clue as to the stage they are at and therefore appropriate repair strategies that might be employed.
- 31What are the ethical issues with the research conducted around the breakdown of romantic relationships?Carrying out research in such a sensitive area raises significant ethical issues as participants may experience distress when revisiting the issues that led to the breakdown. This means the researcher faces the dilemma of pursing valuable information or terminating a study to prevent the participant experiencing further distress.
- 32Why does the breakdown of relationships have hetrosexual bias?Models of relationships tend to be developed from the experience of white, middle-class, heterosexual participants, which may not represent the experience of other groups.
- 33What are the three different types of sexual selection?Inter/Intra sexual selection
Short-term mating preferences
Long term mating preferences. - 34What are the main aspects of Inter/intra sexual selection?Natural Selection
Sexual Selection
Intrasexual Selection
Intersexual Selection - 35What is natural selection?'Survival of the fittest'
The gradual process by which individuals with characteristics that are most suited to the environment are more likely to survive and reproduce. The advantageous alleles are passed onto offspring in the next generation. - 36What is sexual selection?'Survival of the sexiest'
Sexual selection is the process by which characteristics are selected because they attract the opposite sex. It is the selection of characteristics that increase mating success. These genes are passed onto offspring. - 37What is intrasexual selection?Members of one sex (usually males) compete with other members of their own sex for access to members of the opposite sex (mate competition) whatever traits lead to success in this competition will be passed on to the next generation.
- 38What is intersexual selection?Members of one sex (usually females) show preferences for members of the opposite sex who possess certain characteristics (mate choice). These indicate the chances of the mate being able to give protection and support to offspring which makes them more attractive as a potential mate.
- 39What is the theory under short mating preferences ?Parental Investment
- 40What is parental investment?This theory claims that men evolved a greater desire for casual sex and would ideally seek sex earlier in a relationship.
Female behaviour would not be subjected to the same evolutionary pressures. In contrast to women, men appear to lower their standards in the context of short-term mating opportunities and show a marked decreases in attraction following sex (BUSS) - 41What is the gender bias in regards to parental investment?PI theory predicts that men are more likely to have a preference for casual sex, Greling and Buss suggest that women may profit from short term mating as a way of leaving a poor quality relationship or to produce more genetically diverse offspring.
- 42What Is the theory in regards to long term mating?Sexual selection
- 43What does sexual selection say in regards to long term mating?Sexual selection should favour high levels of choosiness in BOTH sexes. Poor mate choices is disadvantageous for both sexes who will have wasted valuable resources,
but is particularly disastrous for women.
- Women have an obligatory biological investment in their children, and therefore are predicted to be very particular when choosing a mate, she will be attracted to a man who can:
Invest in her and any offspring, can protect her and any offspring, show promise as a good parent, are sufficiently compatible to ensure minimal costs to her and the offspring.
- Men are attracted to women who display signals of fertility, an indication of their reproductive value (e.g youth and physical attractiveness) - 44What did Waynforth and Dunbar find?Reviewed 900 US lonely hearts advertisements from 4 newspapers to assess what men and women were seeking in a partner.
52% of males sought a youthful mate, compared with 25% of females. 44% of males sought a physically attractive partner compared with 22% of women - 45Who can criticise that the want for a younger women is not evolutionary?Kendrick et al found that males do not always consistently prefer younger women, finding teenage males are most attracted to women that were actually five years older than them, even though the women show no interest in them.
Some critics also reject sexual selection as an explanation for male preferences to younger women, an alternative explanation being that younger women are easier to control. - 46What did Buss find?Buss surveyed over 10,000 people across 37 cultures to explore what males and females look for in a marriage partner. They found wmen desired mates who were 'good financial prospects' e.g wealthy, ambitious. Men consistently prioritised physical attractiveness (provides indication of health) and youth (suggests fertility). These universal differences may reflect biological differences between women and men that have arisen because of evolutionary processes.
- 47What did Buss and Schmidt find in terms of short term relationships?Men appear to lower their standards in the context of short term mating success and then show a marked decrease in attraction following sex… an evolved adaptation to bring about a hasty departure which prevents them spending too long with one woman.
- 48What did Clark and Hatfield find?Strangers on a university campus were approached by attractive experimenters and asked a serious of questions.
When asked to go back to have sex
0% of females agreed compared to 75% of males. - 49Discuss the validity of Buss' research.He exaggerated the differences and gave little emphasis to consistencies between genders such as the fact that kindness and intelligence were rated as most important by males and females (researcher bias). Also, the findings are self-report and so may not be representative of their actual behaviour.
- 50Define parental investmentAny investment by the parent in an individual offspring that increases the offspring's chance of surviving and hence reproductive success at the expense of the parents ability to invest in other offspring
- Trivers - 51Define Maternal InvestmentWhy do females invest more? Due to adaptive responses over time, the brain size has increased. To compensate for this, childbirth in humans occurs prematurely in comparison to other animals. Therefore, human babies are more immature at birth than other mammals. Therefore the mother not only carries the baby for 9 months but also must breastfeed and car for the baby after, prolonged care both pre-natal and post-natal.
- 52Define Paternal investmentMales invest less - the minimum obligatory investment made by human males is considerably less than females. A woman can produce a limited number of offspring whereas a male can potentially produces limited number of offspring, females must carry the embryo for nine months whereas males can walk away after conception.
Parental investment and cuckoldry - when males do invest parentally (time and resources) they are threatened by the concept of cuckoldry. Because human males invest considerably in their children, they have a greater concern about females cheating (Miller), therefore take extra care to ensure the offspring they are investing is their own.
Sexual and emotional jealousy - men are likely to be jealous of sexual infidelity while woman are more likely to be jealous of emotional infidelity. - 53What did Anderson find challenging Parental investment?They found that men didn't discriminate between children born in to the current partner in a previous relationship and their own. It is possible men would invest in their stepchildren to convince their partner they are a 'good provider' and to promote future mating possibilities.
- 54What did Buss find in regards to sexual and emotional jealouy?Found that when asked to imagine scenes of sexual or emotional infidelity involving their partner, males showed much higher physiological responses (i.e increase in heart rate + EMG response) for sexual rather than the woman who showed higher responses for emotional .
- 55What did Geher find that supports the parental investment theory?Studied 91 non-parent undergraduate students, each completed a parental investment perception scale (PIPS) which included statements such as 'I believe I am very prepared to raise a child at this time in my life'
They were also shown a series of parenting related scenarios such as 'you are a parent of a three-year-old girl who has an ear infection. Your plans for the day have completely changed, you now have to look after her' and levels of ANS arousal were measured.
No real sex differences on self report responses to PIP
Clear differences in the levels of ANS arousal in response to the differnent parenting scenarios. Males showed significantly increased heart rate when presented with scenarios that emphasised the cost of parenting. - 56What might gender differences in parental care be better explained by?Social explanations e.g gender role socialisation.
Females are expected to be nurturing. Furthermore, there is more of a stigma if a woman abandons her child than if a man does, which is nothing to do with the size of the gametes but the socially constructed norms and values. - 57What does Rowe suggest the explanation of parental differences based on evolutionary factors alone is? How does Belsky back this up?Reductionist, men's parental behaviour depends on a various personal and social conditions such as relationship with the mother, characteristics of child etc
Belsky claims that childhood experiences such as parental divorce tend to correlate to the degree in which men invest in the upbringing of their children. - 58What two aspects of childhood can influence adult romatic relationships?Parent Child Relationship
Interaction with peers - 59What is Bowlby's internal working model?Internal Working Model - thought to act as a template for all future relationships, it is essentially a schema i.e what to expect from others
- 60What is Bowlby's continuity hypothesis?The idea that the early attachment relationship is an indicator for later emotional behaviour e.g a securely attached infant will grow up to be an emotionally secure adult.
- 61What did Bowlby suggest happened if aa child is denied continuous emotional care during early childhood?According to Bowlby's maternal deprivation hypothesis, if the child is denied continuous emotional care before the age of 2.5 years, then they could become emotionally maladjusted. This may lead to problems forming and maintaining relationships
- 62What did Hazan and Shaver find?The love quiz advertised in newspaper, respondents asked questions about heir early attachment experiences, current love experiences and attitudes towards love.
Findings support Bowlby's continuity hypothesis that those with a secure attachment type were more trusting, positive, secure and stable. However insecure avoidant types were more fearful of closeness and insecure resistant types experienced difficulty in finding 'true love' - 63Evaluate the methodology of Hazan and ShaverVolunteer sample - prone to sample bias as a certain type of person may have volunteered.
Self report measure so there is a risk of social desirability.
Reliance on retrospective data: prone to inaccuracies as ppts fail to recall their early attachment experiences. - 64What did Simpson et al find ?Conducted a longitudinal study of 78 ppts, studied them during infancy, early childhood, adolescence and early adult hood
Caregivers asked to comment on child's behaviour at 1, teachers asked to comment on how well the child interacted with peers at 6-8, at 16 they were asked to describe their close friendships and as young adults their romantic partners were asked to
describe relationship experiences.
Findings: Those securely attached infants were rated as having higher social competence as children, were closer to their friends at age 16 and were more expressive and emotionally attached to romantic partners in early adulthood. - 65What did Van der Kolk and Fisler find?Those who'd suffered childhood abuse were more likely to develop a disorganised attachment type - characterised by difficulty in regulating emotions, which is crucial in forming and maintaining healthy relationships.
- 66Who provides further evidence that abuse is linked to Berenson and Anderson.- Women who had suffered abuse in childhood were more likely to anticipate rejection and to distance themselves emotionally from their partner, but this only seemed to be the case if their partner reminded them of their abusive parent in some way and did not occur otherwise.
They concluded that there was a process of 'transference' causing these individuals to display inappropriate behavioural patterns in their adult relationships that they had learnt from their relationship with an abusive parent. - 67What did Qualter and Munn find about childhood friendships?Found that children also learn from experiences with other children. This determines how the child thinks about him/herself. Through these interactions, children develop a sense of their own value, which determines how they approach adult relationships. The experience of having a friend to confide in promotes feelings of trust and acceptance, both important in adult relationships.
- 68What does nangle claim?Claims that children's friendships are training grounds for an important adult relationships. Close friendships are characterised by affection, a sense of being understood. These characteristics are vital to adult relationships.
- 69What effect do adolescent relationships have on adult relationships?Romantic relationships in adolescence help to redirect interpersonal energy away from parent and towards a romantic partner, and allow adolescents to experience an emotional and physical intimacy that is different from that experienced with parents. Madsen found some dating in adolescence is advantageous for adult relationship quality, but too much can be maladaptive.
- 70What has been found in regards to gender differences in the nature of peer relationships?Research has demonstrated gender differences in childhood relationships. Richard and Schneider found that girls have more intimate friendships than boys. Other research (ERWIN) found that boys' relationships tend to be more competitive, a fact attributed to greater emphasis on competitive play activities, in contrast girls are more likely to engage in co-operative and sharing activities.
However Erwin claims that sex differences in the experience of childhood relationships have been over-emphasised and that the many similarities are overlooked. - 71What did Haynie and Neeman find with regards to romantic relationships in adolescence?:( Romantic relationships can have negative effects
Haynie found that romantic involvement increased deviance in adolescents by as much as 35% and Neeman et al found negative effects on academic achievement. - 72What is the other cause than childhood that can affect attachment type?It Is also possible that an individuals' attachment type is caused by the current relationship, which is why happily married individuals tend to be securely attached.
- 73Why is there determinism in the development of adult relationships?Research suggests that early experiences have a fixed effect on later adult relationships. However researchers have found many cases where participants were experiencing happy adult relationships, despite not being securely attached infants.
Suggesting that an individuals past experiences do not determine the future course of their adult relationship. - 74Why do western cultures tend to have more voluntary relationships?Western cultures are predominantly urban, ensuring relatively easy social and geographical mobility, therefore interaction occurs with a large group of individuals. This leads to a high degree of choice over whom to interact with as their is a greater 'pool' of potential relationships. Non-western cultures lack these urban setting, therefore there is less social and geographical mobility with less choice about how to interact with on a day to day basis.
- 75Why do individualistic countries lead to more voluntary relationships.As there is great importance on the rights and freedom of the individual, with individual happiness and pleasure seen as fundamentally important. Their interests are more highly regarded than group goals or interests, are consistent with the formation of relationships based on freedom of choice, whereas collectivist cultures leads to relationships to do with the concerns of the family or group, encouraged to be interdependent rather than independent.
- 76What did Levine et al find?Compared 11 cultures using a questionnaire and found that a higher proportion of respondents from collectivist cultures than individualist cultures were willing to marry in the absence of love. This suggests that love is seen as a comparative luxury in collectivist cultures.
- 77What did Seepersad et al find?Seepersad et al, suggest that compared to young adults in non-western cultures, young adults in western cultures would experience a greater degree of loneliness because of their high desire for romantic relationships. A strong emphasis on the importance of romantic relationships in Western cultures may amplify individual's feeling of loneliness. Seepersaad et al's study found that Korean students relied on family to satisfy their social network need, whereas US students relied more on friends and significant others.
- 78What did Epstein find?:) Found in societies with reduced mobility (non-voluntary) arranged marriages seem to work well, with low divorce rates and surprisingly high levels of love between the partners.
- 79What did Myers et al find?Found no difference in marital satisfaction between Indian couples in arranged marriages and non-arranged marriages in the USA.
- 80What did Xiaohe and Whyte find?That women who had married for love were happier than women who were in arranged marriages.
- 81What is an evolutionary explanation for universal love?Claims romantic love is a 'human universal' that evolved to promote survival and reproduction among humans. Jankowiak and Fisher support this claim with their finding that romantic love existed in 90% of the 166 non-western cultures they studied.
- 82What did Levine find?Found a correlation between a culture's individualism and there perceived necessity of love for the establishment of marriage. The more individualistic the country, the more important love was perceived. These results may be due to the fact arranged marriages are more common in collectivist cultures and so love is seen as less important than social status or family compatibility.
- 83What did Gupta and Singh find?They investigated the amount of love in Indian marriages, half of which had been arranged, comparing these feelings in the short term and long term. They found that initially love in arranged marriages was lower than in love marriages. However love increased in arranged marriages and steadily declined in love marriages which had been together for ten years, after this there was no difference in levels of love.
- 84Why does social change affect relationships in different cultures?Social changes such as the internet are having a great effect on people, allowing individuals to be exposed to other ways of life, leading to cross cultural contamination.
- 85Why are there methodological issues when assessing relationships in different cultures?If any aspect of methodology is interpreted differently in one culture than in another this creates cultural bias that can invalidate any conclusions from a cross cultural study. E.g measures of 'love' in western cultures might not be valid in others. Kim and Berry suggest we should aim to develop more explanations and research methods that are not transported from other cultures and are designed for one specific culture.
- 86Why is some research regarding cultural differences quickly outdated?Research carried out 20 years ago may already be out of date, in western cultures attitudes towards sex, sexuality and relationships have altered drastically within decades.
- 87Why are individualist and Collectivist s studies difficult to assess?Lots of cross cultural research has focused on the differences between individualistic and collectivist cultures, however it has been argued that the distinction is artificial and that some cultures can have elements of both. In individualistic cultures there can still be social pressure which influences choice of marriage partner.
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- A Level Psychology (Relationships) Karteikarten am Relationships, erstellt von Robyn Brayley am 18/04/2016.
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