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Attachment
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- 1According to Kagan et al (1978) what is attachment?An intense emotional relationship specific to two people which endures overtime. Prolonged separation from the attachment is accompanied by stress or sorrow.
THIS ATTACHMENT IS MUTUAL OR RECIPROCAL - 2This attachment can be said to have developed when an infant shows...Stranger anxiety - distress at strangers.
Separation protest - distress when separated from their main caregiver. - 3What are five types of 5 types of caregiver-infant interactions that all help develop the infant carer bond and develop communication?•Bodily contact-These are physical interactions between the carer and infant.
•Mimicking-Infants imitate their carer's facial expressions.
•Caregiverese-Adults use a modified form of language which us song-like, slow and repetitive.
•Interactional synchrony-Infants move their bodies in tune with the rhythm of the caregiver's spoken language.
Reciprocity-Interactions between infant and carer result in mutual behaviour. - 4What are the supporting evaluation points for caregiver-infant interactions?+Condon and Sander analysed video recordings of infants movements and found that infants' movements co-ordinated in sequence with adult's speech, supporting the idea of interactional synchrony and its importance in communication.
+Klaus and Kennel compared mums with a little or a lot of physical contact with their newborn(3 days old) babies. One month on, those with lots of contact cuddled their babies and made more eye contact suggesting greater bodily contact leads to a stronger bond. - 5What are the opposing evaluation points for caregiver-infant interactions?-Levine found that interactional synchrony is not found in a cultures e.g. Kenyan mothers and infants have very little physical but still a strong attachment. If something is not present in all cultures it may not be a necessary part of attachment.
-Caregiverese is used by all adults when communicating with infant and so suggests it is not specifically related to the attachment bond. - 6List Schaffer and Emerson's(1964) 4 stages of development - with ages - that children go through when developing an attachment.•Pre-attachment phase(birth to 3 months)
•Indiscriminate attachment phase(3 to 7/8 months)
•Discriminate attachment phase(7/8 months onwards)
•Multiple attachments stage(9 months onwards) - 7What are the key points of the pre-attachment phase?Pre-attachment phase(birth to 3 months): From 6 weeks, become "attracted" to other humans, preferring them to objects and events(demonstrated by smiling at people's faces).
- 8What are the key points of the indiscriminate attachment phase?Indiscriminate attachment phase(3 to 7/8 months): Begin to discriminate between familiar and unfamiliar people, smiling more at familiar. Will still allow strangers to handle and look after them.
- 9What are the key points of the discriminate attachment phase?Discriminate attachment phase(7/8 months onwards): Develop specific attachments, staying close to particular people and becoming distressed when separated from them. Avoid unfamiliar people and protest if strangers try to handle them.
- 10What are the key points of the multiple attachments stage?Multiple attachments stage(9 months onwards): Form strong emotional ties with other major caregivers(e.g. grandparents) and non-caregivers(e.g. other children). Fear of strangers weakens. Attachment to mother figure remains strongest.
- 11What was the aim of Schaffer and Emerson's research?To see if all children develop an attachment in stages and in the same way.
- 12What was Schaffer and Emerson's research (what did they do and what did they find)?•Longitudinal study in working class area of Glasgow.
•60 new born babies and mothers.
•Observed babies, interviewed mothers.
•Each month from birth-1 year old
•Follow up visit at 18months
•Attachment measured through separation protest and separation anxiety.
RESULTS
•Separation protest at 6-8months.
•Stranger anxiety at 7-9months.
•At 18months, 87% with multiple attachments.
•Pattern of attachment in all children suggests biological component. Multiple attachments are the norm. - 13Positive evaluation(s) to Schaffer and Emerson's research.+This study has high validity as it was conducted during everyday life in individuals' homes, meaning the study is not artificial.
- 14List at least 3 negative evaluations of Schaffer and Emerson's research.-Data collected by observation. Researcher bias could mean data collected and analysed may be subjective, especially as researchers may not understand the attachment bond.
-Mothers in interviews may be biased and give socially desirable responses to questions. Meaning information could be inaccurate.
-Some large individual differences in when attachments formed, suggesting attachment is not just biological.
-Carter, opposing research. Found 2 week old babies looked at mother's face longest, especially if she was speaking. Contradictory to Schaffer and Emerson's belief that babies engage with anyone initially. - 15Points to prove the importance of multiple attachments.+Paquette found that fathers tend to be involved in play and less caretaking behaviour. More likely to encourage toddlers to be brave and take risk, therefore, encouraging independence and development.
+Verissimo found quality of relationship between father and toddler correlated with number of friends child had in pre-school.
+Frank found that in families where father is primary caregiver, both parents share role of primary attachment figure. - 16Points suggesting the unimportance of multiple attachments.-Bowlby suggested only important bond is between mother and child. Suggested that mothers inherit genetic blueprint allowing them to care for children. Idea of monotropy- children best chance of survival if they attach to one person.
-Only 10% of males are primary caregiver for children according to office for National Standards.
-Lamb found that fathers valued by good "play mates", children prefer mothers when distressed and seeking comfort. - 17What was the aim of Lorenz's 1935 study on animal attachment?To investigate imprinting- where youngsters follow and form an attachment to the first large object they meet.
- 18What was the procedure behind Lorenz's study of animal attachment?•Large number of goose eggs divided into two groups.
•Half were hatched by the mother, half in an incubator.
•When hatched, half saw mother first, half saw Lorenz.
•Placed them under upturned box to see who they followed when the box was removed. - 19What were Lorenz's findings?Immediately after birth, those hatched naturally followed their mother, the others followed Lorenz.
When released from the upturned box, the same thing occurred. This only happened if exposed to a large object between 4-25 hours after hatching. - 20What are the negative evaluations of Lorenz's study?-It tells us very little about human attachment. There is a large difference between humans and animals and what can be true for one species is not for the other, making it difficult to generalise results. The study is irrelevant for studying infant attachment in people.
-There is also research to contradict Lorenz. Guiton managed to imprint on to rubber gloves. He also managed to reverse the imprinting. This suggests attachment is not as biologically determined as Lorenz thought. - 21Positive evaluations for Lorenz's study.+Some suggest studies like Lorenz allow us to study aspects of attachment that we could not ordinarily study in humans. This is because removing human infants from their mothers would be unethical.
+Imprinting occurs only within a short time frame leading Bowlby to consider idea of critical period for human development for human attachment. Study has clear implications for human development and has furthered our understanding.
+Idea that imprinting is irreverisble - 22What was the aim of Harlow's study of attachment?To investigate whether the attachment bond was based on food.
- 23Explain the method behind Harlow's study on animal attachment.•Harlow separated eight new born monkeys from biological mothers at birth, reared them in cages and isolated them in cages until they were 8 months old.
•Each cage, 2 'surrogate' mothers- one made of wire with monkey-like face and one with a wooden block covered in soft cloths.
•Four monkeys had a feeding bottle placed with the wire monkey and another four with the soft cloth surrogate.
•Harlow observed time spent with the two different mothers and who the monkeys clung to when scared by a mechanical bear. - 24What were the results of Harlow's experiment?All eight monkeys spent the majority of time with the soft cloth monkey.
Those fed from the wire monkey only clung long enough to feed and then went back to the cloth monkey.
Harlow concluded infants do not develop attachment to the to who feeds them but the one offering comfort.
A long term effect of this experiment was that all monkeys developed abnormally. - 25What are the criticisms of Harlow's study? (at least 3)-It is unethical to separate new borns from their mothers, especially in a species so well developed. Nowadays, this would not be allowed as it would go against BPS guidelines.
-Although humans and chimps share 99% of DNA, humans brains=3x larger. Therefore making it difficult to generalise from monkey attachment to human.
-Stimulus monkeys varied in more ways than just the IV (which material) as the heads were different. This is a confounding variable that could account for the differences in attachment.
-Research is unethical as damages credibility of different research of the same subject, leading to the distrust of psychologists. - 26Name a supporting piece of evidence for Harlow's research?+This study could not have been conducted on humans and without this research the effects of comfort vs food would never have been investigated. These studies tell us a lot about human attachment.
- 27What are the explanations of attachment?BOTH OF THESE ARE CUPBOARD LOVE THEORIES. WE ATTACH TO THE PERSON WHO FEEDS US.
•Classical Conditioning- (learning by association) suggests that we attach to the person who gives us food because we learn to associate them with the pleasure from food. Food provides pleasure, mum is present when food is produced, mum becomes associated with food and then evolves to source of pleasure in her own right.
Operant conditioning-(trial and error) suggests baby cries when hungry. Baby learns that when it cries, mum feeds it and makes it feel better. Learns through trial and error each time it cries, mum comes along and makes it feel more comfortable. Each time baby feels more comfortable, it reinforces the behaviour of calling for and wanting mum. - 28Name at least 3 of the problems with these explanations for attachment.-The theory is reductionist, reduces complicated emotions, cognitions(or thoughts) down to a simple stimulus-response explanation. Humans are more complicated and have a huge range of emotions as well as needing love and affection, which this study does not account for.
-Contradictory research: Harlow placed baby rhesus monkeys in cage with 2 different surrogate mothers (full study earlier). He found babies spent most of their time clinging to cloth mother even though she had not provided milk. Therefore, contradicting the 'cupboard love' theory as comfort is just as important as food in attachment.
-Learning theory is largely based on non-human research.We cannot easily generalise from humans to animals as we have more complex cognition and not as much instinctual behaviour. Many animals are born able to walk, find food etc we are not.
-It is a drive-reduction theory ('our behaviour is motivated by reducing discomfort' e.g. hunger). There are many human behaviour that are not related to drive reduction e.g. bungee jumping. It is too simplistic.
-Contradictory research: Tronick. - 29What was the contradictory research of Tronick?He found that the Efe tribe babies were breast fed by multiple women throughout the day but still only attached to their mother. This suggests we don't just attach to the one person who feeds us.
- 30What is Bowlby's evolutionary theory?•We attach to our mothers for reasons of survival. If we didn't form attachments with our babies and take care of them our species would die out as babies would not survive.
•Babies are 'genetically programmed' to encourage care taking behaviours by engaging in 'social releasers'. These behaviours include crying(cannot be ignored), gazing into mother's eyes(encouraging communication) etc. This forces a response from mother to give care.
•Mother inherit genetic blueprint-programs her to respond to baby's attachment behaviours. Doesn't have to be her biological child. Babies need adequate mothering rather than biological.
•Babies display monotropy-strong innate tendency to become attached to one particular adult female. First and strongest bond. Ensures best chance of survival with one responsible carer.
•Needs to occur during critical period or first 3-6 months or would never occur.
•Baby forms internal working model-mental representation of relationship. This allows child to understand caregivers behaviour(enhancing bond) and form template for future relationships(expectations). - 31List the supporting points for Bowlby's evolutionary theory.+Stern(1977) claimed babies had pre-disposition to look into caregivers eyes. Supports idea that they display behaviours which bring about a care-giving response from mothers (social releasers).
+Tronick et al(1992) studied African tribe(Efe from Zaire). Infants cared for and breastfed by several women but usually sleep with own mother at night. Still show 1 primary attachment supporting monotropy. - 32List the negative evaluations of Bowlby's evolutionary theory.-Rutter(1981) said young children and babies display range of attachment behaviours towards various figures not just mother. Contradicts idea of 'monotropy' as children attach to more than just the mother.
-Other researchers found some infants are able to form attachments after the critical period. Meaning it is a sensitive period not critical.
-Kagan suggested strong attachment relates more with infant's innate temperament or personality. This implies the bond is not about survival alone. - 33Which study tells us about individual differences and different types of attachment?Ainsworth(1970), the strange situation.
- 34List the clear procedure of the strange situation study.•Infants between 12-18months.
•Observed via video cameras in purpose built playroom(2 comfortable chairs, play area and toys).
1.Firstly, mother and baby introduced to strange room.
2.Stranger enters room, talks to mother, tries to interact with baby.
3.Child left with stranger as mother leaves.
4.Mother returns, stranger then leaves and is later followed by mother. Leaving baby all alone in room. - 35What were the behavioral measures in this study.•Willingness to explore.
•Reaction to separation from mother.
•Reaction to being re-united with mother.
•Reaction to stranger. - 36What are the three classifications of attachment from this study and the percentage of participants with in each category?•Type A- Insecure Avoidant (15%)
•Type B- Secure (70%)
•Type C- Insecure Ambivalent (15%) - 37What was Type A's (Insecure Avoidant) reaction to each behavioural measure?•Willingness to explore with mother: Willing to play regardless of mother's presence.
•How child reacts to separation from mother: Very mild distress.
•How the child reacts to re-uniting with mother: Does not seek comfort on mother's return.
•How the child reacts to the stranger: Indifferent to stranger. - 38What was Type B's (Secure) reaction to each behavioural measure?•Willingness to explore with mother present: Would only play when mum was present.
•How child reacts to separation from mother: Some distress but settled quickly.
•Child's reaction to being re-united with the mother: Shows joy on return.
•How child reacts to stranger: Did not allow stranger to comfort them. - 39How did Type C (Insecure Ambivalent) react to the behavioural measures?•Willingness to explore with mother present: Fussy, clingy, unwilling to explore/play.
•Child's reaction to separation from mother: Very distressed.
•Child's reaction to being re-united with mother: Angry, resisted mother's attempts to comfort them.
•How child reacts to stranger: Rejects stranger. - 40What are the methodological issues with Ainsworth's strange situation study?-Ainsworth's research took place in an unfamiliar environment and not the baby's home. Departure of the mother in a strange place and interaction with a stranger are likely to have caused the infant psychological distress which may have impacted upon the results.
-Some say it lacks validity as the strange and unfamiliar playroom was not the child's home and so it can be argued that children would behave differently in more realistic circumstances such as playgroup or nursery.
-Others also suggest that it is not suitable to generalise across cultures. An example is Japanese children who are rarely left alone subsequently become very distressed when mum leaves them. They may be classified as type C, however, their behaviour is a result of different child rearing practices rather than insecure attachment. - 41What are the positives of Ainsworth's study?+The method used is very reliable and has been used in many studies worldwide with similar results found. It is easy to replicate due to it's clear procedure. This makes is a very strong procedure (a supporting factor).
+It has practical applications- it can help insecure children by identifying insecurely attached infants and allowing information to be passed on to parents/carers of ways of fostering more secure attachments. - 42What was the aim of Van Ljzendoorn and Kroonenberg's 1988 research?To investigate cultural differences in attachment.
- 43Explain the procedure behind Van Ljzendoorn and Kroonenberg's study?•Meta analysis of 32 studies of attachment done in eight different countries (Britain, China, Holland, Germany, USA, Japan, Sweden and Israel).
•2000 babies/mother and infant pairs took part.
•A meta analysis is where a psychologists look at the statistics and results of studies and combine them into one analysis. - 44What were the most prominent findings in Van Ljzendoorn and Kroonenberg's study?•Type A was found more commonly in Western cultures in comparison to the others.
•Overall attachment (from all mother and infant pairs) Type A=21%, Type B=67%, Type C=12%.
•Samples from all cultures (except 1 sample from Germany) the model of attachment was B-secure.
•The highest proportion of type A attachment was found in German samples due to different culture and ideologies such as independence and individuality.
Intra-cultural differences (differences in attachment between samples) was often greater than inter-cultural differences (differences in attachment between different countries).
Type A lowest- 5% Japan highest- 35% Germany.
Type B lowest- 50% China highest- 75% Sweden and Britain.
Type C lowest- 3% Britain highest- Israel. - 45List negative evaluations of Van Ljzendoorn and Kroonenberg (following two on next card, prompts for these are: Takahashi, Israeli Kibbutzim and Goldberg).-Goldberg argues we can only make valid interpretations of the strange situation if we understand child-rearing practices within that culture. We can't accept findings of this study on face value. The differences found cold be due to differences in child rearing practices making strange situation an unreliable tool to measure attachment in certain cultures.
-Takahashi(1990) found strange situation is inappropriate to use with Japanese children as they experience much less separation e.g. they generally sleep with parents until over aged 2, are carried on mothers backs and bathe with parents. When put in strange situation it is more stressful for them and they appear to be Type C. Therefore, strange situation is inappropriate.
-In Israeli Kibbutzim where people live communally-very small community, few unfamiliar faces-child care is trusted with the Metapelet(deals with all aspects of their physical care type). A child from this community may become highly distressed and look like displaying type C behaviour when it is just a reflection of living in a close knit group. - 46List the remaining 2 evaluation points for Van Ljzendoorn and Kroonenberg (clues:US,individualistic).-Over half the studies in this research were in the US making it difficult to draw conclusions about other cultures when the US is so dominant in the sample.
-This and much of other cross-cultural research is conducted in individualistic rather than collectivist cultures. Individualistic cultures stress the individuals rather than the group's need. This is a problem as the type of culture will have an effect on how the child is classified. - 47What was Bowlby's theory of maternal deprivation?•Bowlby proposed that prolonged emotional deprivation (loss of attachment figure/caregiver) has long-term consequences in terms of emotional development.
•Suggested that it is not enough to make sure that child's physical needs are met, they must have warm, intimate and continuous relationships.
•He believed that if a child is deprived of such care during critical period of development because of frequent prolonged separations they may become emotionally disturbed and if substitute attachment figure is not found it could lead to affectionless psychopathy, permanently damaged and reduced intellectual ability. - 48What is affectionless psychopathy?Lack of ability to feel higher emotions such as guilt, shame and embarrassment due to prolonged separation from carers when young.
- 49What was Bowlby's research that supported his theory of maternal deprivation?• Study of 44 juvenile thieves and analysed case histories of large number of children (44 caught stealing and 44 hadn't).
• Found large number were affectionless psychopaths - lacked normal signs of affection and shame.
• 86% of affectionless had experienced prolonged and frequent separation from mother. Clear link between maternal deprivation and long term harm. - 50List the further supporting evidence surrounding Bowlby's maternal deprivation theory.+ Bifulco studied women who had experienced 12+ months of separation from mothers or whose mothers had died. Found 25% experience anxiety issues compared to 15% in control group.
+ Benefited children due to practical applications in wider society. Hospital visiting policies changed to ensure parents could visit or stay with children. - 51List the weaknesses of Bowlby's maternal deprivation theory.- Barrett reviewed many studies on separation from mother and found children with secure attachments to begin with coped well. Suggesting not all children suffer negative long-term.
- Bowlby studied 60 children under 4 with TB who were away for long periods in hospital. - 52What is an institution?A place where people live for a period of time, for example an orphanage.
- 53What was the aim of Rutter's 2010 Romanian orphanage studies?To assess whether loving and nurturing care could overcome the effects of privation in Romanian Orphanages following adoption in Britain.
- 54What was the procedure of Rutter's Romanian orphanage studies?• Longitudinal study of 111 children split into 3 groups.
• Assessed their levels of cognitive functioning and their psychical development.
• Compared to control group of British children.
• On-going study, followed up at 4, 6, 11 and 16. - 55What three categories were the children in this study split into?• Children adopted before the age of six months.
• Children adopted between six months and two years.
• Children adopted after two. - 56What were the findings of Rutter's Romanian orphanages studies?• Initial assessment, 50% Romanian orphans 'retarded' in cognitive functioning and underweight, control group were not.
• By age 4, almost all children adopted before 6 months of age had caught up with British children.
• Subsequent follow-ups show children adopted after six months show significant cognitive deficits, struggled in peer relationships and less likely to have one attachment figure. - 57What was Rutter's conclusion of his findings in Romanian orphanage studies?Children adopted before 6 months were able to overcome the effects of institutionalisation, however, for those who weren't there were severe consequences.
- 58List the positive evaluations for Rutter's orphanage studies.+ Has beneficial applications as has changed adoption policies all over the world.
+ Longitudinal study is a strength as can follow children closely and witness development. There is a high validity and can be certain of the effects of institutionalisation. - 59List the negative evaluation points of Rutter's orphanage studies.- Is correlational, lack of mother is only one factor that could have long-term effect. E.g. could be malnutrition, lack of stimulation and physical conditions.
- Children may have received different amounts of care and attention in the orphanage making it difficult to draw conclusions.
-Study is on-going and data only exists until age of 11. These children may develop normally if given longer. Findings may be incomplete. - 60Describe the influence of early attachment on childhood and adult relationships?• Continuity hypothesis - characteristics we have in our infant attachment stay with us into childhood and adulthood, influencing future relationships.
• Internal working model - where an infant's primary attachment forms a model or template for future relationships.
• The influences and effects of peers and adults. - 61Lyons-Ruth et al researched into the influence of peers, discuss the basic information they found.Aim - Test continuity hypothesis.
Method - Longitudinal study comparing infant attachment type at 18 months with attachment to peers at age 5.
Findings - Found group D children (disorganised) struggled to make friends with peers.
Conclusion - Early attachment type influences peer relationships. - 62Hazan and Shaver researched into the continuance of childhood attachment type, discuss the basic information they found.Aim - If love in adulthood is directly related to childhood attachment type.
Method - Participants completed love quiz to assess behaviour and attachment in romantic relationships. This was correlated with results from 2nd questionnaire on childhood attachment.
Findings - Type B (secure) had most successful long-lasting relationships, type A did not see need for love and type C fell in love easily but didn't find true love.n - 63What are the strengths of the model on influence of early attachment on childhood and adult relationships?+ Lyons-Ruth's longitudinal study means results from children at 18 months can be directly compared to those at 5 years. Is a valid method of research.
+ Supporting research Verrisimo et al looked at effects of secure attachment to fathers during infancy. Found that those with secure attachments able to form and maintain friendships better than insecure children.
+ Supporting research McCarthy studied women with attachment classified in childhood and found same results as Hazan and Shaver. - 64List the negatives of the model on influence of early attachment on childhood and adult relationships?- Relies on people's memories regarding infant attachment types . May not be valid as people's memories are often vague and inaccurate.
- Contradictory research (longitudinal) Zimmerman on German children, comparing infancy to when 16. Found childhood attachment type not good indicator of attachments in adolescence. No continuity.
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