A Level Psychology

A Level Psychology

1. Experimental Methods

   • also known as a test of difference.  aims to show that the DV is affected by the IV
   • There will be a significant difference in the speed in MPH participants run with compared to without a lion
     • "significant"
       • has to be a significant difference
     • "difference"
       • experiment because it compares two groups
     • "speed"
       • dependant variable
     • "MPH"
       • operationalising how we measure the DV
     • "with a lion compared to without a lion"
       • independent variable 
       • each level has it's own condition
   • Aims and hypotheses
     • Aim
       • the theory you are testing.  -> also like the title of the research
     • Hypothesis
       • turns the aim into a testable statement
       • Directional (one-tailed)
         • predicts which group will do better
         • Participants running with a lion will be significantly faster in MPH than participants running without a lion. 
       • Non-directional (two-tailed)
         • predicts a difference, but not which way it will go 
       • Null (two tailed)
         • must state that any difference will be down to chance
         • there will be no significant difference in MPH with a lion than without a lion and any difference will be down to chance 
   • Ways of measuring the DV
     • Psychometric tests
       • psychological phenomina
     • Recall tests
       • memory
     • Standard measurements
       • volume, speed, etc...
     • Novel tests
       • tests specific to the DV
     • Observations
       • describing / counting behaviours
     • Self reports
       • asking questons
     • Operationalising variables
       • -> making something replicable ->standardising the test
   • Extraneous and confounding variables
     • Extraneous
       • ->unwanted factors that could effect the DV ->can be identified and controlled ( removed) before the experiment
     • Confounding
       • will affect the DV
     • Types of EVs and CVs
       • Demand characteristics
         • When a participant is biased towards or against the aims of the study 
         • Screw-you effect
         • Please- you effect
     • Controls
       • the ket to controlling EVs is standardisation (making it a fair test)
       • Randomisation
         • to make sure the order a task is completed in doesn't affect the DV
       • Counterbalancing
         • reduces the chance of order effects
         • ex:  A -> B  B -> A A -> B B -> A 
   • Conditions
     • Used to control EVs and DVs but can create their own variables
     • Independent measures
       • where each condition has a different group of ppts and the measured DV from each condition is compared 
       • random allocation attempts to evenly distribute ppt characteristics across conditions
     • Repeated measures
       • where each condition has the same set of ppts
     • Matched pairs
       • this is where we match our participant on relevant variable/s to the study.  -> must be relevant to the study. Age and gender do not count as matched pairs at this is standard 
   • Experiments
     • Must have: -> an IV  -> a DV  -> some level of variable control  -> standardised procedure  -> a form of experimental design 
     • Field and lab are the only 'true' experiments as they have direct control of the IV
     • Laboratory experiments
       • -> highly controlled environment (not always a lab)  -> artificial environment ->  strict control of EVs and CVs  -> random allocation 
       • Pros:  -> reliable -> good controls -> replicable -> can establish cause & effect -> more accurate
       • Cons:  -> lacks eco val (little mundane realism)  -> artificial -> can't be generalised -> demand characteristics reduce validity
     • Field experiments
       • Takes place in the natural environment of the behaviour being studies   -> little control of the EVs and CVs  -> random allocation
       • Pros:  -> can be generalised  -> high eco val  -> higher internal val than nat & quasi 
       • Cons:  -> ethical issues (lack of informed consent)  -> less reliable as the environment is never the same -> not replicable
     • Natural experiments
       • -> an experiment where the IV changes naturally  ->rejects the alternate hypothesis 
       • Pros: -> studies situations that would be otherwise unethical  -> ecological validity 
       • Cons:  -> lack of control of EVs and DVs  -> no random allocation -> reduced validity
     • Quasi experiments
       • -> an "almost" experiment  -> experimenter separates naturally occurring IVs -> takes place in lab conditions
       • Pros:  ->standardised procedures
       • Cons:  -> lack of control  -> no random allocation -> reduced validity
   • Standardised procedures
     • Who
       • allocation to groups
       • not always needed
     • What
       • the thing you measure (give measurements and manipulations) 
     • When
       • time of day (hours & mins)  timings of conditions 
     • Where
       • location (name it) 
     • How
       • what you're doing (conditions, materials, etc...) 

2. Research Methods

   • Evaluation using research methods
     • Reliability
       • To be consistently right or wrong.  ->'test and re-test' or 'standard test of reliability' used to check consistently
     • Validity
       • Truth and accuracy.  -> shows one thing is responsible for another (cause and effect)
       • Types of validity
         • Internal validity
           • The extent to which one thing is responsible for or causes another thing  -> IV causes the DV
         • Ecological validity
           • Being able to generalise a study to the real world or every day life 
           • Being able to generalise a study to the real world or everyday life
         • Population validity
           • Being able to generalise to most people
   • Peer review and the economy
     • Peer review
       • Having a paper scrutinised by experts n the fields who are impartial and unknown to the researcher
       • Anonymity means that unfair bias is easier to get away with (reduced validity)
       • Publication bias against any ground-breaking research or only publishing money makers 
       • Allocate funding
         • To avoid funding only being allocated to friends
       • To validate the quality and relevance of the research
         • Making sure the research is reliable and valid 
       • To suggest improvements
   • Ethics
     • When there is an issue between the rights of a participant and the aims of the research 
     • The BPS code of ethics is a 'quasi-legal' document that outlines the guidelines to adhere to when carrying out psychological research 
     • Peter
       • Protection (from harm
     • Piper
       • Privacy
     • Cried
       • Consent (of the informed variety)
     • When
       • Withdraw
     • Charles
       • Confidentiality
     • Dickens
       • Deception
     • Died
       • Debriefing
     • Ethical guidelines
       • For children under 16, parental consent is needed.  -> If ppts can't give real consent, special safeguarding measures are ensured 
       • Respect
       • Compitence
       • Responsibility
       • Integrity
       • Informed consent
         • Basic knowledge of the experiment with the option to withdraw
         • Gives ppts the right to withdraw from the study or the wright to withhold their data. 
         • If there is no informed consent, ppts are given the right to withhold data in the debiref
       • Presumptive consent
         • A similar group of people to the participants are asked if the study is acceptable and if they agree, the consent of the participants is presumed 
       • Prior general consent
         • Participants give their consent to be in several studies, including one deception. By consenting, the ppts have consented to being decieved 
       • Retrospective consent
         • After already taking part, participants are asked for their consent (during debriefing) wether knowing of their participation or not. 
   • Target populations and Sampling methods
     • Target population
       • Group of people you are interested in studying
     • Sample
       • a smaller group from the TP which is representative 
       • A biased sample occurs when some people are more or less represented than others 
       • Opportunity sample
         • ppts are chosen from convinience
         • Pros: ->less time consuming & saves money  ->easy to get a lot of ppts
         • Cons:  ->not a diverse group ->can be biased
       • Self selecting / Volunteer sample
         • ppts volunteer to participate
         • Pros:  ->same as OS
         • Cons:  ->not anyone or everyone will volunteer
       • Systematic sampling
         • ppts are selected mathematically, choosing every n^th person
         • Pros:  -> avoids sample bias  ->more representative and easier to generalise 
         • Cons:  -> slower and time consuming  -> chance of a 'freak' sample
       • Stratified sampling
         • ppts are chosen after the sampling frame has been stratified. people are chosen in sample size proportional to the original group 
         • Pros:  ->representative ->avoids 'freak' samples
         • Cons:  ->time consuming  ->may miss key characteristics
       • Random sampling
         • does what is says on the tin. everyone has an equal chance of being selected
         • Pros:  ->avoids bias  ->representative
         • Cons:  ->time consuming ->'freak' sample
   • Statistics
     • Descriptive stats
       • Mode
         • most common 
         • AO1/2: most frequently occurring number in a set of data  ->can be bimodal 
         • AO3:  + very easy to calculate  + can sometimes be the only value you can use  - doesn't tell us very much  - very basic 
       • Median
         • middle value
         • AO1/2: middle number of a set when placed in numerical order
         • AO3: +not as impacted my anomalous results as mean  -not as sensitive as the mean  -doesn't consider all scores
       • Mean
         • add then divide 
         • AO1/2:  calculated value from adding up all scored then dividing by the amount of numbers there are 
         • AO3:  + most sensitive - can be easily distorted by an anomalous result 
       • Range
         • calculation of spread  -> ( largest val - smallest val ) - 1
         • AO3: + easy to calculate  - not always representative due to extreme scores 
       • Standard deviation
         • produces a single score that tells us how far scores differ from the mean and the difference between ppts scores
         • AO3: + much more precise and useful  - still impacted by extreme scores
     • Sign tests
       • Test of difference
         • repeated measures / matched pairs 
         • p = < 0.05     < 5     <5% if P = > 0.05, it should not be used 
       • Calculated value of S
         • find the less frequent sign 
       • Critical value
         • has to be less than or equal to the value of S
     • Nominal data
       • frequencies of different categories
     • Ordinal data
       • ordered but not always equally 
     • Interval / Ratio
       • better and best-ordered equally 
     • Chi Squared test
     • Wilcox
     • Pearson's

3. Non-experimental Methods

   • Data
     • Primary data
       • data from your own research 
       • + specific to your aim - harder to get and time consuming 
     • Secondary data
       • Existing data from someone else 
       • + easy to get  + can build hypothesis on it  - may not be specific  - can build hypothesis on it 
     • Meta data
       • A collection of secondary data
       • Meta analysis
         • -> a study compiled on a range of secondary sources to look at wider effects  -> works out an 'effect size' which is an average of statistical significance
         • + generalisable and considers a wider range of studies + much more accurate conclusion + raises validity - difference in study quality can reduce validity and usefulness of meta analysis 
     • Quantitative data
       • Measurable data -> deals with numbers -> statistically analysed -> specific to psychological variables -> looks at averages
       • Pros:  -> easy to analyse and compare -> tends to be more objective
       • Cons:  -> can oversimplify data does not truly represent their thought
     • Qualitative data
       • -> observed, not measured  -> deals with descriptions -> interprets meaning or motive of behaviour  -> attitudes, beliefs, feelings and emotions
       • Pros:  -> rich detail and description of human behaviour -> increases understanding and validity
       • Cons:  -> harder to analyse and compare -> less objective 
   • Self reports
     • Methods of asking ppts about their beliefs, attitudes and behaviour. They give us insight to unobservable behaviour 
     • Interviews
       • almost always face-to-face 
       • interviewer bias may occur when the ppt thinks they know how the interviewer wants them to answer the questions and changes their answers to fit this. 
       • social desirability bias 
       • Structured
         • uses pre-determined questions as the only questions being asked 
         • Pros:  -> replicable -> easy to analyse and compare
         • Cons:  -> not flexible  -> less valid 
       • Unstructured
         • only has a topic and doesn't use predetermined questions
         • Pros:  -> more valid  -> flexible 
         • Cons:  -> not replicable -> harder to analyse
       • Semi-structured
         • predetermined questions with additional questions 
     • Questionnaires
       • -> set of standardised questions -> self-recorded -> always structured -> can collect qualitative and quantitative data
       • Pros:  -> cost effective  -> can be done on huge numbers -> closed questions
       • Cons:  -> closed questions -> response bias reduces validity -> social desirability bias
       • Open questions
         • -> allows respondents to answer how they like -> generates qualitative data
       • Closed questions
         • -> predetermined set of  answers -> quantitative data
   • Observations
     • a way of watching a person's behaviour without having to ask them 
     • Pros:  -> allows researchers to have more flexibility -> research behaviour in natural or controlled environments
     • Cons:  -> observer bias (where you perceive a person's behaviour in line with what you expect) reduces objectivity and validity
     • Natural and controlled
       • Natural
         • -> Natural to where the behaviour occurs  -> no EVs or CVs are controlled 
         • Pro:  -> good eco val 
         • Cons:  -> not replicable  -> low validity
       • Controlled
         • -> control over certain variables  -> stimulus to observe reactions  -> some control over EVs and CVs 
         • Pros:  -> more replicable  -> more cause and effect clarity 
         • Con:  -> less eco val 
     • Overt and covert
       • Overt
         • -> participants are aware that they are being observed  -> informed consent 
         • Pro:  -> more ethical (consent) 
         • Cons:  -> less eco val  -> demand characteristics
       • Covert
         • -> unaware they are being observed -> public places 
         • Pros:  -> less demand characteristics  -> eco val 
         • Con:  -> unethical (no consent) 
     • Participant and non-participant
       • Participant
         • observer takes part in what they are observing
         • Pro:  -> insight, experience and understanding
         • Con:  -> people get too involved and become biased 
       • Non-participant
         • observer watches from afar -> may be for practical reasons 
         • Pro:  -> objective view
         • Con:  -> lacks insight and understanding 
     • Structured and unstuctured
       • Structured
         • -> breaks down behaviours and categorises them  -> allows researchers to quantify behaviours they want -> quantitative
         • Pros:  -> decreases observer bias  -> quantitative data 
         • Cons:  -> decreased validity  -> not as flexible
       • Unstructured
         • -> records everything they see -> observations of small groups -> qualitative 
         • Pros:  -> more flexible  -> increased validity
         • Cons:  -> lacks quantitative data -> increases observer bias 
     • Sampling
       • Continuous recording
         • -> used in unstructured observations  -> records behaviours for the whole duration 
       • Event sampling
         • -> using the checklist 
       • Time sampling
         • -> set time frame, interval, resume  ^____________________________|
     • Inter-observer reliability
       • aka Inter-rater reliability -> compare findings of 2 or more observers -> avoids observer bias  -> catch more behaviours 
   • Correlations
     • Statistical method that can tell us how two co-variables are related  -> don't show cause and effectherefore do't have IVs or DVs  -> plotted on a scattergram 
     • Difference to experiments
       • -> experiments manipulate an IV which has a measurable effect on the DV
     • Correlation hypothesis
       • -> must make a hypothesis that operationalises both co-variables -> do not predict a difference but a relationship/correlation
       • 2-T  "there will be a correlation between A measured...and B measured..."
       • 1-T  "there will be a positive / negative correlation between A measured... and B measured..."
       • Null "there will be no correlation between A measured...and B measured..."
       • Pros:  -> useful for looking at relationships between variables making it a good preliminary research tool  -> easy to carry out and often use secondary data 
       • Cons:  -> cannot establish cause and effect -> must be careful with applying correlations because of third variables 

4. Approaches in Psychology

   • the Learning Approach
     • Behaviourism
       • Behaviourists are more interested in observable behaviour as opposed to feeling and thinking 
       • Pros:  -> classical conditioning has a major impact on psychology  -> scientific in it's approach -> adds to our understanding of the nature / nurture debate -> large number of useful applications  -> adds to our understanding of human behaviour 
       • Cons:  -> ignores free will, emotions, subjective experiences and consciousness- says all animals are passive -> some people don't respond as well as others and some behaviours are harder to learn  -> environmentally deterministic -> studies on animals raise ethical issues -> underestimates the differences between species
       • Tabula rasa
         • -> means blank slate.  -> when we are born, our minds are tabula rasa and all behaviour is learnt from the environment 
       • We have no free will
         • Behaviour is the response to stimulus  -> all behaviour can be reduced to a stimulus-response association 
       • Classical conditioning
         • http://www.simplypsychology.org/classical-conditioning.html
         • Pavlov's Study
           • -> tested learning by association on animals -> refers to the conditioning of reflexes and associating it with a neutral stimulus with an innate bodily reflex
           • Step 1
             • Pavlov established that meat caused the dog to salivate
           • Step 2
             • Pavlov established the bell did not cause the dog to salivate
           • Step 3
             • He presented the dog food and plated the bell at the same time.
               • The dog is salivating for the food, not the bell
           • Step 4
             • After repeating this several times, the dog would salivate at the sound of the bell
               • The dog has associated food with the ringing of the bell 
         • Watson
           • Little Albert
             • -> learn fear through conditioning  -> used loud noise association on a 9 month baby to instil a fear of furry animals 
         • B F Skinner
           • Works on the assumption of learning through reward and punishment
           • Skinner Box
             • -> Carefully timed rewards  -> creating and reinforcing desired behaviour
       • Rewards and Punishment
         • Negative
           • having something taken away 
           • Negative reinforcement:  -> removal of something unpleasant
           • Negative punishment:  -> removal of something desired
         • Positive
           • getting something
           • Positive reinforcement: -> rewards for behaviour
           • Positive punishment: -> receving something unpleasant for behaviour
     • Social Learning Theory
       • learn through observation and reinforcement of behaviours 
       • Seen as the bridge between behaviourism and the cognitive approach as it focuses on cognitive factors involved in learning
       • Bandura (1961)
         • Bobo Doll Experiment
           • Aim
             • to demonstrate that children would be aggressive if given the chance after being passive witnesses to an aggressive display by an adult 
           • Results
             • Aggressive model = aggressive play non-aggressive model = non aggressive play 
             • Gender variables
               • Boys: -> more physically aggressive with a male model
               • Girls:  -> more verbally aggressive with a female model and physically aggressive with a male model 
           • Method
             • Lab experiment  + control  -> same toys -> EVs  -> see cause and effect -> reliable - eco val  -> children don't live or play in a lab -> can't generalise 
             • Sample + both genders  -> 36 of each sex  -> generalisable to both sexes - age -> 4.5 yrs average -> population validity
   • the Cognitive Approach
     • one of the key assumptions of the cognitive approach is that we all think differently 
     • cognitive psychologists want to know why we all experience the world differently 
     • cognitive psychologists would argue that they study areas of psychology that behaviourists cannot observe. 
     • Assumptions
       • -> scientific -> behaviour can be explained by knowing what is taken in and how it is processed -> individual differences can be explained by the way individuals process information -> processes can't be seen and are indirectly studied by inferences -> processing is active and can be used to find out about people's experiences -> self-reporting can be used to find out about people's experiences 
     • EWT and weapon focus
       • EWT is important in many cases and can de the deciding factor in a guilty verdict -> weapon focus can alter how a person remembers a scene as their focus is on the weapon and they cannot take in other imformation
     • the Computer metaphor
       • Similarities:  -> inputs and outputs  -> take in data and code it -> capable of memory storage  -> capacity to  work on material -> limited capacity
       • Differences:  -> computers don't have emotions or motivation  -> computer code has to be directly input and humans have meaning to the input -> humans receive input though senses 
     • Cognitive models
       • -> humans actively aim to make sense and add meaning to things they encounter -> CEs are based on how people process and organise information relevant to particular actions  
       • -> models help us to predict how the brain will behave and what the outcome will be > it is still not necessary for us to find out what is happening in the brain
   • the Biological Approach
     • >> scientific af >>uses twin, adoption and family studies >>may also use scanning techniques such as fMRIs and EEGs >>has increased understanding of biochemical process, helping with developing psychoactive drugs >>offers explanations for mental illness (see psychopathology)
     • Assumptions
       • >>everything psychological is first biological >>looks at genes, neurochemistry, the nervous system and biological structures in the body as responsible for behaviour
     • Genetics
     • Genotype and Phenotype
     • Evolution and Behaviour
       • >>the idea that behaviours that aid a person to survive may have been genetically inherited as physical things that aid survival have
   • the Humanistic Approach
     • >>developed by Rogers and Maslow >>loose set of abstract concepts with limited application past councelling >>holistic
     • Maslow's Heirarchy of Needs and Self-Actualisation
       • >>we can all reach SA, but we must personally grow >>some people have important physiological barriers that prevent them from reaching their goals
     • Assumptions
       • >>does not believe in generalisable laws for human behaviour >>believes all humans should be studies as individuals >>free will, idiographic, not scientific
     • Free Will
       • >>believes wholly in free will >>thinks people are "active agents" and respond to stimuli around them
     • The self, Congruence and Conditions of Worth
       • >>Rogers argues that for one to reach SA, their concept of SELF must be close to their ideal self >>things such as worthlessness can be explained by a lack of unconditional positive regard in childhood
       • >>incongruence is the notion that the ideal self and actual self have very little overlap and the person would find self-actualisation difficult to achieve >>congruence is the idea that the ideal self and actual self are more similar and the person would find self actualisation easier to achieve
   • the Psychodynamic Approach
     • >>based on case studies (boo, you whore), however high in qualitative data >>unfalsifiable (see Popper) >>psychoanalysis (application) >>highly deterministic
     • Role of the Unconcsious
       • >>consious mind is the "tip of the iceberg" >>unconsious mind makes up majority of the mind >>preconsious under consious mind, may come into play when dreaming and in "Freudian slips"
     • Personality
       • >>3 parts of the subconsious mind that develops throughout early childhood and makes up parts of who we are
       • Id
         • >>pleasure principal >>develops from birth
       • Ego
         • >>reality principal >>mediator >>develops around 24 months
       • Suoperego
         • >>morality principal >>forms around 5 years old
     • Psychosexual Stages
       • Oral
         • >>libido in mouth >>oral fixation seen as smokers, nail biters, etc
       • Anal
         • >>libido around anus >>stage when potty training occurs >>ego has developed >>anally retentive: ->obsessively tidy, hates mess, punctual, respects authority >>anally expulsive: ->likes sharing, messy, disorganised, rebellious
       • Phallic
         • >>chold becomes aware of sex differences >>resolved by identification with a parent
         • Oedipus complex
           • >>male begins to desire his mother >>wants to get rid of father >>gets castration anxiety >>identified with father and picks up "masculine" behaviours
         • Electra complex
           • >>girl briefly desires father >>penis envy >>subdues the wish for a penis with the wish for a baby >>blames her mother, becomes angry at her, represses and identifies
       • Latent
         • >>5/6-puberty >>libido is dormant >>energy on skills, knowledge and playing
       • Gential
         • >>puberty to adulthood >>adolescent sexual exploration resolved by settling down in 20s >>fixations may lead to sexual perversions
     • Defence Mechanisms
       • Repression
         • >>force out of conscious mind
       • Denial
         • >>refusal to acknowledge
       • Displacement
         • >>projecting distressing feelings on to a different target

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