Memory

Memory

1. working memory model

   • Phonological Loop
     • verbal information
     • speech rehearsal and production
   • Central Executive
     • modality free
     • briefly holds info from all stores
   • Episodic Buffer
     • integrates and briefly stores for all stores
   • BADDLEY AND HITCH
     • more advanced STM as it is concerned with active processing and brief storage of information
     • information can be processed without rehersal
     • all components are important in everyday life
     • knowledge of the functioning components can benefit brain damaged individuals
     • little is known about the central executive
     • central executive was once unitary but now it has at least 3 functions
     • it is unclear how all the components interact together
     • tells us little about the LTM
   • Visuo-Spatical Sketch Pad
     • rehearsal and temp storage of visual and spatial info
     • inner scribe and visual cache

2. multi store memory model

   • STM
     • 7 +/- 2 items
     • seconds/minutes
       • PETERSON AND PETERSON
         • recll trigram after counting backwards in 3 from different numbers
           • prevents rehersal
             • 3 seconds-80% recall
             • 6 seconds- 50% recall
             • 18 seconds- 10% recall
     • acoustic
   • LTM
     • semantic
     • unlimited
     • months, years
       • BAHRICK ET AL
         • american year book
           • recall face and name of former class mates
             • 34 years- 90% face and name accuracy
             • 48 years- 80% name, 40% face
             • free-recall was less accurate, 60% after 25 year, 30% after 48 years
   • ATKINSON AND SHIFFRIN
     • clear distinction between STM & LTM
     • very inflential
     • capacity shows radical differences
     • model says transfer is through rehersal, however not everyone reherses it
     • model is over simplified as it presumes there is only one section to each store
     • high face validity
     • cannot support how memory works as a whole

3. eye witness testimony

   • Anxiety
     • Stress
       • DEFFENBACHER
         • meta-analysis
           • face-recognition correctness: 54% low anxiety/stress 42% high anxiety/stress
           • detail recall correctness: 64% low anxiety/stress 52% high anxiety/stress
     • Weapon Focus
       • LOFTUS
         • hostile and aggressive argument, pulled out letter opener
           • 33% could recognise culprit
         • harmless conversation, pulled out pen
           • 49% could recognise participant
   • Misleading Information
     • LOFTUS
       • short film of car accident, they were then asked questions about the speed using a different verb
         • smash: 40.8mph
         • collide:39.3pmh
         • bumped: 38.1mph
         • hit: 34mph
       • participants were then asked whether they saw any broken glass a week later
         • smashed: 32%
         • hit: 14%
     • incorrect information that may influence the outcome (deliberetly/in good faith)
   • Age
     • Old vs Young
       • BREWER ET AL
         • research on EWT
           • Older (60-80) are more likely to chose even if culprit isn't present compared to young (20-40)
     • Own Age Bias
       • WRIGHT & STROUD
         • compared young and old adults identification after a video
           • culprit was correctly identified mostly when of the same age
       • eyewitnesses have better memory for those of similar age of themselves
     • Children vs Adults
       • POZZULO & LINDSAY
         • meta-analysis
           • 0-5 are less likely to correctly identify compared to older children
           • children 5+ correctly identified as well as adults
           • 0-13 are most likely to make a choice even if culprit isn't present
       • Children yield to social pressures

4. memory enhancement techniques

   • Mind Maps
     • diagrams used to represent words. ideas, tasks around a central idea
       • actively involved in learning process
       • links make subjects easier to organise
       • uses both sides of the brain
     • FARRAND ET AL
       • 600 word text
         • mind-map group recalled 10% more
   • Method of Loci
     • to-be-learnt words associated with well known locations
       • BOWER
         • 5 lists of 20 nouns
           • 78% recall compared to 28%
       • effective
         • retrieval cues
         • uses previous knowledge to improve memory
       • hard to remember with abstract material
       • to-be-learned can interfere with known locations
   • Story Method
     • remeber unrelated words by linking them to a story
     • BOWER & CLARK
       • 12 lists of 10 nouns
         • 13% without story
         • 93% correct with story

5. cognitive interviews

   • GEISELMAN ET AL
     • mental reinstatement of environment and personal contact
     • encouraging the reporting of every detail
     • describe in different orders
     • report incident from different view points
     • correct statements in police interview: 29.4
     • correct statements in cognitive interview: 41.1
   • FISHER ET AL
     • minimise distractions
     • speak slowly
     • pause between respones
     • tailor language to individual
     • reduce eyewitness anxiety
     • review description/understanding
     • enhanced: 57.5 correct statements but 28% more incorrect statements
     • basic: 39.6 correct statements