Relationships

Relationships

1. formation

   • reward need satisfaction theory
     • classical conditioning
       • associating a partner with a good feeling
         • USC -> UCR UCS + NS -> UCR CS -> CR
         • Griffitt and Vietich
           • ppts placed in waiting room with a stranger, ppts that heard the good news rated the stranger higher than those who heard the bad news
             • AO2: lab experiment
     • operant conditioning
       • Byrne and Clore
         • repeated behaviour -> desired outcome of gaining a partner
           • we like people who directly reward us and so surround ourselves with those who are directly associated with this
             • Griffitt and Guay
               • ppts given a creative task where the experimenter randomly awarded marks rewarding how good their work was, ppts that were scored higher ranked the experimenter more highly
       • Cate et al
         • asked 337 individuals to assess current relationship, reward level was superior to all other factors that determined relationship satisfaction
           • AO2: self report, invalid answers due to personal nature of questions, doesn't account for individual differences
     • refuted by
       • Hays
         • in student friendships, individuals favoured equity instead of focusing solely on rewards
           • underestimates altruistic relationships
     • behaviourist
       • + scientific, explains why relationships initially occur, supports nurture
       • - doesn't account for cognitive processes or unconscious reasoning -> reductionist/narrow
     • cultural bias
       • Lott
         • women in many cultures are more focused upon the needs of others rather than receiving rewards
   • similarity theory
     • Byrne et al
       • two stages (1) avoidance of dissimilar individuals (2) choosing from remaining individuals, attracted by similar personality traits
       • attitude alignment = partners modify attitudes to become more similar
     • Caspi and Herbener
       • married couples that had similar personalities tended to be happier
       • Berscheid and Reis
         • two hard working people more attracted to each other than if one avoided responsibility
     • refuted by
       • Yoshida
         • research focusing only on attitude and personality similarities is insufficient e.g. ignores economic levels, physical condition etc.
     • Rosenbaum
       • dissimilarity repulsion hypothesis
         • dissimilarity more important factor
           • Singh and Tan
             • tested across cultures -> reduce cultural bias

2. breakdown

   • Duck
     • lack of interpersonal skills
       • Boekhout
         • male undergraduates suggested affairs were due to lack of sexual stimulation or variety
         • females argued affairs were due to lack of emotional factors e.g. commitment or attention
       • Cina et al
         • Couples Coping Enhancement Training = aimed to improve communication and problem solving skills, increasing awareness of equity and respect
         • 50 ppts received CCET, 50 didn't
           • trained couples had higher martial quality than control group
     • lack of stimulation
       • Baxter et al
         • most common reason for relationship dissolution
     • maintenance difficulties
       • Shaver et al
         • going to uni placed huge strain on romantic relationships
         • temporal validity = advance in technology e.g. Skype
         • - Holt and Stone
           • little decrease in relationship satisfaction with uni students, as long as the partners reunite regularly
     • gender differences
       • Brehm and Kassin
         • women more likely to express unhappiness and incompatibility, whereas men are upset by sexual withholding
           • Akert
             • women have greater desire to stay friends after break up, men prefer to cut losses and move on
   • Rollie and Duck
     • 2) intrapsychic process
       • social withdrawl or resentment towards partner, focusing on faults and costs of relationship
     • 1) breakdown
       • partner dissatisfied due to boredom, communication difficulties etc.
     • 6) resurrection process
       • preparing themselves for future relationships by addressing what they are/are not looking for in a partner
     • 5) grave dressing
       • tidying up memories, account for how and why dissolution began
         • + Tashiro and Frazier
           • break up gave undergrads new insight about themselves and clearer idea about future partners
             • low population validity
     • 4) social process
       • publicising the break up, seeking support from third party who will denigrate the ex to build an alliance
       • investments negotiated
     • 3) dyadic process
       • feelings of uncertainity and hostility
         • discuss perceived inequalities and issues
         • chance of reconciliation
     • AO3: relationship counselling service 'Relate', aid reconciliation or help individuals seek positives in breakdown

3. sexual selection and parental investment

   • evolutionary approach
     • intrasexual selection = males fight for dominance and access to members of opposite sex, characteristics of dominant male passed onto offspring
     • intersexual selection = female choose male based on characteristics, highest chance of reproductive survival
       • males base choice on physical features e.g. youth and attractiveness
         • indication of health and fertility
       • females choose based on males resources, ability for males to nurture offspring
         • Penton-voak et al
           • women preferred more feminine face in long term partner (when less fertile) yet on seeking short term sexual relationships (during high risk conception stage of menstruation), looked for masculine features
             • beneficial genetics, long term childcare support
       • Clark and Hatfield
         • 50% of uni students agreed to go on a date with an attractive stranger, 75% of males agreed to sex where as all females rejected offer
           • demonstrates preference for sexual variety and readiness of men to engage in sexual encounters
     • lacks external validity, only male preferences not choices
       • Buss
         • supports male choice hypothesis in study of actual marriages over 27 cultures
           • males value attractiveness more than females, tending to choose younger women
             • evolution due to limited access to fertile women in the past
           • reduced culture bias
     • gender bias
       • many studies only consider males for short term mating preferences
         • Bailey and Zucher
           • preference of gay and straight couples only studied men, finding they showed great interest in uncommitted sex
   • parental investment
     • the sex which invests the most tends to be more discriminating in choosing a partner, to increase survival of offspring
       • the smaller the investment, the higher the competition to spread genes
       • maternal investment higher than paternal
         • female gametes less numerous and more costly to provide (once every 30 days vs 3 times a day (sperm))
           • assymetry = females are limited to number of offspring
             • having to carry a child for 9 months, breast feed etc.
               • Willerman
                 • women should value characteristics like greater earning potenital and ambition
         • women choose partner to gain greater investment
           • Baker and Bellis
             • 14% of the population were a product of extra martial mating
               • women more likely to marry those who can provide resources but have affairs with those who can provide good genes
     • ethics: reinforces gender stereotypes
     • explains differences in sexual jealousy
       • Buss et al
         • study of US students, measures physiologcal responses when ppts were presented with imaginary scenes of emotional and sexual infidelity
           • men more concerned about sexual infidelity, women more concerned about emotional infidelity
             • concern for betrayal, males fear of cuckoldry
     • deterministic
       • inability to reject cause of behaviour, determined by evolutionary past
         • diffuse responsibility
           • Thornhill and Thornhill
             • rape is an adaptive strategy
               • applying the male Panorpa scorpion fly to human behaviour

4. maintenance

   • social exchange theory
     • Thibaut and Kelly
       • economic theory in terms of profits and losses
         • maximise rewards, minimise ccsts
         • profitable = commitment
     • Marelich et al
       • sex = deceptive exchange resource
         • men more inclined to use blantant lies about caring for their partner
         • women more likely to have sex to avoid confrontation and gain approval
     • comparison level
       • potential profit > comparison level = relationship maintained
       • comparison level for alternatives
         • benefits of alternative relationship higher = individual will leave existing partner
       • relationship judged as negative in terms of past relationships = dissatisfaction
     • reductionist
       • selfish, hedonistic
       • disregards other factors e.g. love
     • ethnocentric
       • Moghaddam
         • economic theory only applies to individualistic, Western relationships = short term relationships with high social mobility
           • usefulness of economic theory?
     • real world application
       • Rusbult and Martz
         • women more committed to relationship in profits outweigh losses
           • affect stay/leave decision in abusive relationship
             • e.g. investments high + alternatives low = staying is more profitable
   • equity theory
     • Walster et al
       • give > receive = unhappy receive > give = guilty
       • high investment = more motivation to restore equity
       • the greater the perceived inequity, the greater the distress caused
       • - Ragsdale and Brandau-Brown
         • equity isn't most important contributing factor to satisfaction, doesn't explain married couples
       • - Clark and Mills
         • communal relationships more determined by desire to respond to their partners needs
     • + Stafford and Canary
       • 200 married couples, questionnaire on equity and satisfaction
         • satisfaction higher in relationships with perceived equity
         • married couples: social desirability bias
     • + Yum et al
       • heterosexual study across 6 different cultures, culture has no significant effect on results

5. cultural differences

   • individualist vs collectivist
     • individualist = relationship based on choice, values independence
     • collectivist
       • Traditionist Zulu courtship, cattle given to mother of wife
       • value inter-dependence, relationships focus on group need
   • norms and rules
     • tribal norms
       • Suri tribe - sze of lip plate determines value in society and allow women to marry
       • Maasai tribe - arranged marriage, polygamy is norm where wives help each other with household and childcare duties
       • AO2: culture determines relationship?
         • conformity
     • cultural similarities
       • Argyle et al
         • examined relationships in UK, Italy, Hong Kong and Japan
           • different rules relevant to all cultures, some similarities
             • courtesy, respect, social intimacy
           • tool developed in West - imposed etic
     • Ting Toomey
       • in indiviualist cultures, reciprocity tends to voluntary/ in collectivist cultures, reciprocity tends to obligatory
   • volutary vs non-voluntary
     • Western cultures = urban settings increase geographical and social mobility, more options
       • Non Western cultures = less geographical and social mobility, less interactions with strangers
         • Moghaddam et al
           • realtionships tied to other factors e.g. family concerns, economic resources etc.
         • Gupta and Singh
           • looked at liking and loving over a ten year period, comparing arranged/non arranged marriages
             • feelings of liking, loving and affection higher in arranged marriages after 10 years
       • historical bias
         • voluntary/temporary relationships as a consequence of increasing urbanisation, not cultural norms
   • temporary vs permanent
     • acceptable to move on from relationships quickly in Western cultures
       • Hsu
         • Western norms of discontinuity went against Japanese practice that relationships should be permenant
           • tradition and honour

6. early relationships

   • Bowlby
     • continuity hypothesis, attachment behaviour characterises individuals later behaviour
     • internal working model
       • basing future relationships on initial attachment to primary caregiver
     • Ainsworth
       • secure
         • willing to explore, high stranger anxiety, easy to soothe, joy on reunion, caregiver sensitive to needs
           • Waters et al/ Jacobson and Willie
             • securely attached children more confident in interactions with friends
           • Hartup et al
             • securely attached children more popular at nursery and engage in more social interactions
               • Sroufe and Fleeson
                 • insecurely attached children tend to rely more on teachers for interaction and social support
       • resistant
         • unwilling to explore, high stranger anixety, distressed on separation, sought and rejected contact on return, caregivers ambivalent to needs
       • avoidant
         • willing to explore, low stranger anxiety, indifferent to separation, avoided contact on return, caregiver unresponsive to needs
   • peer relationships provide opportunity to develop and practice social competence, sense of own value, ability to please others
   • social learning theory/parental modelling
     • Parker
       • families indirectly influence child's later relationships by guiding and modifying child's social behaviour
   • Hazan and Shaver
     • love quiz questionnaire published in rocky road newspaper, questions determine early relationships with parents and adult romantic relationships
       • secure = secure stable and loving relationship with partner
       • avoidant = fear of intimacy, emotional highs and lows, jealousy
       • resistant = obsessive, emotional highs and lows, jealousy
     • AO2: self report, retrospetive data, sample, correlational, ethical issues
   • Simpson
     • determinism, individuals past doesn't determine future course of relationships