Methodology (Learning Theories)

Observations

• Observations are non-experimental. There's no manipulation of variables. A researcher will simply observe behaviour, and look for patterns. We can't drawn cause and effect. Observations can be used as a method or as a technique.
• Observations as a research technique
• This is when observations are used as part of another research method such as a lab or field experiment. Nearly all research in psychology involves some form of observation E.g. Bandura observed the children through a one-way window. Also observed through cameras in Reicher and Haslam. Also observations in Watson and Rayner.
• Observational Research
• This is where the entire study is an observation. Depending on the method of observation used the researcher may collect qualitative data, quantitative data or both types.

Types of observation

• Naturalistic: behaviour is studied in a natural situation where everything has been left as it normally is
• Structured: staged observations, normally carried out within an environment in which the experimenter has some control, such as a lab. e.g. behind a one-way screen. A structured observation is when the researcher has a system that is used to record behaviour. May have a coding system to tally the number of times a behaviour occurs. Also various sampling procedures to decide what to observe and when. These will give quantitative data. Methods such as note taking, audio and video recordings may also be used and will give more qualitative data.
• Coding System: when behaviour is operationalised by being broken into different categories.
• Sampling Procedures: in a continuous observation, the observer should record every instance of behaviour being studied. However in practicality, there would be too much data to record, so therefore needs to be a systematic method of sampling.
• Event sampling: counting each time a particular behaviour is observed.
• Time sampling: recording data at particular intervals e.g. every 30 seconds.

Types of observation (cont)

• Participant: an observation where the observer is also a participant
• Non-participant: an observation where the observer is not part of the situation
• Naturalistic Overt: the person being observed is aware that they're being observed
• Naturalistic Covert: the person being observed is unaware that they're being observed
• These can all be combined in many different ways, to create many varieties of observation.

Evaluation

• Naturalistic - without coding system, observations may be more subjective. Lacks replicability. High ecological validity. No informed consent.
• Structured - with coding system, more objective. More replicable. Less ecological validity. Consent.
• Participant - Subjective as observer is observing themselves (DC/ SD). Observer bias.
• Non-participant - less subjective. Less observer bias.
• Covert - ppts act more naturally (less SD/ DC). No consent.
• Overt - DC/ SD, observer bias

Dealing with validity in observations

• A researcher can assess the validity of his observations by conducting further observations in different settings with varied people so that the results can be more generalisable. (test-retest)
• By using more than one observer, observer bias can be reduced.
• Observer bias can also be reduced by using a double blind technique where the person doing the observing doesn't know the aims of the study.
• The validity of a coding system can be assessed through content, construct, concurrent and predictive methods

Dealing with reliability in observations

• Main issue with observations is that they should be consistent. If they're consistent, we would expect 2 observers to produce exactly the same observations. The extent to which any 2 or more observers agree is called inter-observer reliability. This is calculated by correlating the observations of 2 or more observers. Generally if there's more than 80% agreement between the observers, the data has inter-observer reliability.
• Reliability can also be increased by training the observers in the use of a coding system through practice.

General evaluation

• Strengths:
• high ecological validity (especially when covert)
• can be used to generate ideas for or validate findings from experimental studies
• often the only practical/ ethical method for certain research questions
• Weaknesses:
• can't infer cause and effect
• lack of control means replication is difficult
• often has observer bias

Content Analysis

• A research tool typically used for analysing the content for the incidence of certain words, images or concepts within material, typically advertisements, books, films, newspapers etc. Categories are normally agreed in advance and then go through the selected material and tally or count the number of times that each of these categories occurs.
• Qualitative Analysis may also be used - this is where the meaning and relationship of words, concepts or pictures are examined in order to explain the message within them. Content analysis relies entirely on coded categories.

Animal Research

• Learning theories rely heavily on animal research. The belief behind this is that both animals and humans are born a 'blank slate' (tabula rasa) and therefore learn in the same way.
• Harlow (1959) - Rhesus monkeys deprived of mother. 2 wire monkeys, one with bottle and one with cloth. The monkey will seek comfort.
• Pavlov (1927) - Condition dogs to salivate to the sound of a bell.
• B.F Skinner (1935) - Skinner's Box - reinforce behaviour in rats

Advantages for using animals in research

• They're fascinating species and research may actually benefit other non-human animals.
• It allows for greater control and objectivity in research procedures, animals for example don't show demand characteristics.
• Human beings and some non-human animals are very close physiologically and therefore generalisations can be made. As a result findings may be beneficial for humans.
• A lot of research uses rats, this is beneficial as they produce offspring very quickly (gestation is 22 days). Therefore large samples can be bred and used in a short time frame.
• Researchers are able to test animals in ways that would be unethical in humans e.g. Skinner's electric shocks.
• Animal research has contributed a lot to what we know about the brain and nervous system.

Moral justification - the greater good

• Animal research can provide medical advances such as through drug testing providing treatments for horrific diseases. This is incredibly useful.
• This is a utilitarian view i.e. whatever produces the greater good for the greater number of individuals is ethically acceptable. This means that, if animal research can alleviate pain and suffering for a large number of people, it is justifiable.
• Dawkins (1990) notes that morally questionable research using non-human animals might be acceptable if the goal is the relief of human suffering, but might be unacceptable if the goal is simply satisfaction of intellectual curiosity.
• Harlow's Monkeys (1959) - the effects of early maternal deprivation (useful knowledge)
• Skinner's Rats (1935) - operant conditioning - token economy in prisons (useful)
• Pavlov's Dogs (1927) - classical conditioning - understand phobias and treatment, schools, learning in general (useful)

Disadvantages of using animals in research

• Animal rights - Regan claimed that animals should never be tested on (an absolutist position). Animals should be treated with respect.
• A lot of animal research is lab-based and therefore lacks ecological validity.
• There are a lot of differences between animals and humans - humans have deeper levels of thought. Comparisons can't really be made.
• The human brain is very different from an animal. We have a much larger cortex and different cognitive capabilities.
• Not all research has a direct benefit to humans which raises ethical issues if the animal has been inflicted pain or discomfort.
• If animals really are that similar to humans then they should be treated the same ethically. Singer (1975) calls the deliberate harming of animals to prevent human suffering 'speciesism' - a form of discrimination against animals.

Existing constraints

• The National Centre for the Replacement, Refinement and Reduction of Animals (NC3Rs) has been set up to encourage, research and support the use of the 3 Rs.
• Replacement = replace use of animals with other techniques to avoid the use of animals altogether (e.g. stem cells)
• Refinement = refine the way experiments are carried out, to make animals suffer as little as possible. This includes better housing and improvements to procedures
• Reduction = reduce the number of animals used to a minimum, to obtain information from fewer animals or more information from the same number of animals.

Animals Scientific Procedures Act 1986

• This cover all animal research. The act permits studies to be conducted using animals for procedures such as breeding genetically modified animals, medical and veterinary advances, education, environmental toxicology and includes procedures requiring vivisection, if certain criteria are met.
• This act also regulates the use of protected animals in any experimental or other scientific procedure which may cause pain, suffering, distress or lasting harm to the animal. Protected animals under the Act are any living vertebrate other than humans and a single invertebrate species - the octopus.
• It is an underlying principle of this Act that animals bred, supplied and used for scientific procedures are cared for in accordance with the best standards of modern animal breeding.
• The BPS (British Psychological Society) regulates what animal experiments can take place. If the research doesn't meet the criteria of the act then the psychologist has to justify that the research will outweigh the cost to the animal.
• All psychology research labs using animals are required to hold a license for the current research that they're undertaking. The individuals carrying out the research are also required to hold a personal license.

Ethical Issues when using animals

• Maternal deprivation - when a young animal is kept away from or taken permanently from its mother
• Psychological harm - when unnecessary physical harm is inflicted on the animal, beyond what is acceptable
• Physical harm - when unnecessary stress is caused to the animal, beyond what is acceptable
• Removal from natural habitat - when an animal is kept in an unnatural environment and expected to perform unnatural tasks
• Harlow (1959) - psychological harm, removal from natural habitat, maternal deprivation
• Pavlov (1927) - removal from natural habitat, psychological harm
• Skinner (1935) - psychological harm, physical harm (electric shock), removal from natural habitat

Levels of measurement

• Nominal Data - a level of data where scores of participants have been grouped into categories
• Ordinal Data - data where it's possible to rank the scores in order
• Interval Data - data where each unit on a scale represents an equal interval, e.g. centimeters

Experimental design

• Independent Groups design - every ppt experiences only one level of the IV, allowing comparison between the different groups.
• + no order effects, less chance of demand characteristics - individual differences
• Repeated Measures design - every ppt experiences every level of the IV, allowing comparison between each ppt's scores in each condition.
• + no individual differences, only need half the sample - order effects, demand characteristics
• Matched Pairs design - same as independent groups but ppts in one condition are carefully matched with ppts in the other group to reduce individual differences.
• + individual differences reduced by matching - take a long time, can't match exactly

Chi Square

Chi Square

• Used to investigate whether distributions of nominal data differ from one another. It tests the null hypothesis.
• Expected frequencies calculated
• For each pair of observed and expected frequencies you subtract the expected score away from the observed score, square it and then divide it by the expected score (as shown in the formula)
• Then add up all the answers to give the observed value
• Calculate degrees of freedom. Df = (no. of rows - 1) x (no. of columns - 1)
• Compare observed value to critical value. The observed needs to be greater than the critical to be significant.

Scientific status of Psychology

• Replicability: extent to which the study can be repeated with similar results found
• Reliability: how consistently it measures
• Internal Validity: the extent to which we can be sure the IV caused the DV and nothing else
• Predictive Validity: the extent to which we can use the findings to predict other behaviour
• Ecological Validity: the extent to which the situation mirrors real life
• Reductionism: splitting a complex thing into its constituent parts
• Falsification: must be able to prove it false. If things are falsifiable then they can be used in scientific studies and inquiry.
• Empiricism: the idea that knowledge should be gained through experience - used careful observation and experiments to gather facts and evidence

Key Features of a Science

• Empirical Evidence: refers to data being collected through direct observation or experiment. Empirical evidence doesn't rely on argument or belief. Instead, experiments and observations are carried out carefully and reported in detail so that other investigators can repeat and attempt to verify the work.
• Objectivity: researchers should remain totally value free when studying; they should try to remain totally unbiased in their investigations - not influenced by personal feelings and experiences.
• Control: all extraneous variables need to be controlled in order to establish cause and effect.
• Predictability: aim to be able to predict future behaviour from the findings of our research.
• Hypothesis testing: a statement made at the beginning of an invetigation that serves as a prediction and is derived from a theory.
• Replication: refers to whether a particular method and finding can be repeated with different/same people and/or on different occasions, to see if results are similar. If it can't be replicated by other scientists then it won't be accepted. By testing and retesting, it gives us confidence that the results are reliable and can be used to build up a body of knowledge or a theory.

Folie 22

• Something may be considered unscientific if it:
• is subjective
• is not measurable/ deals with qualitative data
• has few controls
• works with an aim and not a hypothesis
• lacks reliability/ credibility