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Sociology Key Words
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- 1Ageismthe negative stereotyping of people on the basis of their age
- 2Alienationwhere an individual or group feels socially isolated and estranged because they lack the power to control their lives and realise their true potential
- 3Bandinga form of streaming
- 4Birth Ratethe number of live births per thousand of the population per year
- 5Bourgeoisiea Marxist term for the capitalist class, the owners of the means of production
- 6Case Studyresearch that examines a single case or example
- 7Childhooda socially defined age-status.
- 8Civil Partnershipthe 2004 Civil Partnership Ace has given same-sex couples similar legal rights to married couples in respect of pensions, inheritance, tenancies and property.
- 9Closed-ended Questionsquestions used in social survey that allow only a limited choice of answers from a pre-set list.
- 10Comparative Methoda research method that compares two social groups that are alike apart from one factor.
- 11Compensatory Educationgovernment education policies such as Operation Head start in the USA that seek to tackle the problem of under-achievement by providing extra support and funding to schools and families in deprived areas.
- 12Comprehensive Systema non-selective education system where all children attend the same type of secondary school.
- 13Conjugal Rolesthe roles played by husband and wife.
- 14Content Analysisa method of analysing the content of documents and media output to find out how often and in what ways different types of people or events appear.
- 15Control Groupin experiments, scientists compare a control group and an experimental group that are identical in all respects.
- 16Correlationwhen two or more factors or variables vary together.
- 17Correspondence PrincipleBowles and Gintis' concept describing the way that the organisation and control of schools mirrors or 'corresponds to' the workplace in capitalist society.
- 18Cultural Capitalthe knowledge, attitudes, values, language, tastes and abilities that the middle class transmit to their children.
- 19Cultural Deprivationthe theory that many working-class and black children are inadequately socialised and therefore lack the 'right' culture needed for educational success
- 20Cultureall those things that are learnt and shared by a society or group of people and transmitted from generation to generation through socialisation.
- 21Curriculumthose things taught or learnt in educational institutions.
- 22Death Ratethe number of deaths per thousand of the population per year
- 23Deferred Gratificationpostponing immediate rewards or pleasures, generally with the aim of producing a greater reward at a later date
- 24Demographythe study of population, including birth, death, fertility and infant mortality rates, immigration and emigration, and age structure, as well as the reasons for changes in these.
- 25Dependency Culturewhere people assume that the state will support them, rather than them relying on their own efforts and taking responsibility for their families.
- 26Dependency Ratiothe relationship between the size of the working population and the non-working or dependent population.
- 27Deviancebehaviour that does not conform to the norms of a society or group.
- 28Differentationdistinguishing or creating differences between individuals or groups.
- 29Discriminationtreating people differently, whether negatively or positively.
- 30Documentsare of two types:
Public Documents are produced by organisations such as governments, schools, media, etc.
Personal Documents are created by individuals and often provide first-person accounts of events and experinces - 31Domestic Labourwork performed in the home, such as childcare, cooking, and cleaning.
- 32Dual Burdenwhen a person is responsible for two jobs.
- 33Education Triagethe process whereby schools sort pupils into 'hopeless cases', 'those who will pass anyway', and 'those with potential to pass'
- 34Emotion Workthe work involved in meeting the emotional needs of other people
- 35Empathyan understanding of how another person thinks, feels or acts, achieved by putting oneself in their place.
- 36Empty Shell Marriagea marriage in name only, where a couple continues to live under the same roof but as separate individuals.
- 37Ethicsissues of right and wrong; moral principles or guidelines.
- 38Ethnic Grouppeople who share the same heritage, culture and identity, often including the same language and religion, and who see themselves as a distinctive group.
- 39Ethnocentricseeing or judging things in a biased way from the viewpoint of one particular culture
- 40Exchange Theorythe idea that people create, maintain or break off relationships depending on the costs and benefit of doing so
- 41Experimentsa laboratory experiment is a test carried out in controlled conditions in an artificial setting to establish a cause-and-effect relationship between two or more variables.
- 42Exploitationpaying workers less than the value of their labour
- 43Expressive Rolethe caring, nurturing, 'homemaker' role in the family.
- 44Extended Familyany group of kin extended beyond the nuclear family
- 45Family Diversitythe idea that there is a range of different family types, rather than a single dominant one
- 46Family Practisesthe routine actions through which we create our sense of 'being a family member', such as doing the shopping or the DIY
- 47Family Structurethe composition of a group or people who live together as a family unit.
- 48Fertility Ratethe total fertility rate (TFR) is the average number of children women will have during their fertile years.
- 49Feminisma sociological perspective and political movement that focuses on women's oppression and the struggle to end it.
- 50Fordisma type of industrial production based on a detailed division of labour, using closely supervised, low-skilled workers and assembly-line technology to mass-produce standardised goods.
- 51Functionthe contribution that a part of society or well-being of society as whole.
- 52Functional FitParsons' theory that, with industrialisation, the structure of the family becomes nuclear to the fit the needs of industrial society for a geographically and socially mobile labour force
- 53Functionalisma consensus perspective in sociology that sees society as based on shared values into which members are socialised.
- 54Genderthe social and cultural characteristics of men and women.
- 55Globalisationthe idea that the world is becoming increasingly interconnected and barriers are disappearing.
- 56Hawthorne Effectwhere the subjects of a research study know they are being studied and began to behave differently as a result. thereby undermining the study's validity
- 57Hierarchyan organisation or social structure based on a 'pyramid' of senior and junior positions and top-down control
- 58Householda group of people who life together and share things such as meals, bills, facilities or chores, or one person living alone
- 59Hypothesisan untested theory or explanation, expressed as a statement.
- 60Identitythe individual's sense of self, influenced by socialisation and interactions with others; a sense of belonging to a community.
- 61Ideologyoriginally a Marxist idea meaning a set of beliefs that serve the interests of a dominant social group by justifying their privileged position
- 62Immediate Gratificationa preference for immediate pleasure or reward, without regard for the longer-term consequences
- 63Industrialisationthe shift from an agricultural economy to one based on factory production
- 64Individualismthe belief that the individual is more important than the group or community.
- 65Infant Mortality RateThe number of infants who die before their first birthday, per thousand live births per year.
- 66Informed Consentwhere those taking part in a study have agreed to do so and understand the purpose of the study
- 67Instrumental Rolethe breadwinner or provider role in the family
- 68Interactionisma sociological perspective that focuses on small-scale interactions between individuals and groups, rather than on the large-scale workings of society.
- 69Interpretivisma term covering a range of perspectives including interactionism. Interpretivists focus on how we construct our social worlds through the meanings we create and attach to events, actions and situations.
- 70Interview Schedulethe list of questions to be asked in an interview.
- 71Interviewsa method of gathering information by asking questions orally, either face-to-face or by telephone.
- 72Labellingthe process of attaching a definition or meaning to an individual or group
- 73Legitimationjustifying something by making it seem fair and natural.
- 74Life Chancesthe chances that different social groups have of obtaining those things society regards as desirable or of suffering those things regarded as undesirable
- 75Life Course Analysisan approach focusing on the meanings family members give to life events and choices
- 76Life Expectancyhow long on average people who are born in a given year expect to live
- 77Living Apart Together ('LATs')couples who are in a significant relationship, but not married or cohabiting.
- 78Longitudinal Studystudy of a sample of people in which information is collected at regular intervals over an extended period of time
- 79Macro-Leveltheories such as functionalism and Marxism that focus on the large scale.
- 80Marketisationthe policy of introducing market forces of supply and demand into areas run by the state, such as education and the National Health Service.
- 81Marxisma conflict perspective based on the ideas of Karl Marx. It sees society as divided into two opposed classes, one of which exploits the labour of the other.
- 82Material Deprivationpoverty; a lack of basic necessities such as adequate diet, housing, clothing or the money to buy these things.
- 83Meritocracyan educational or social system where everyone has an equal opportunity to succeed and where individuals' rewards and status are achieved by their own efforts rather than ascribed by their gender, class or ethnic group.
- 84Micro-Leveltheories such as interactionism that focus on small-scale, face-to-face interaction.
- 85Mobilitymovement; change of position. Sociologists distinguish between geographical mobility.
- 86Modernismmodernists perspectives believe that society has a fairly clear-cut, predictable structure and that it is possible to gain true and certain scientific knowledge of how society functions.
- 87Multiculturala society or institution that recognises and gives value to different cultures and/or ethnic groups.
- 88Myth of MeritocracyFunctionalists argue that the education system is meritocratic, but Bowles and Gintis claim that meritocracy is an ideology legitimating inequality by falsely claiming that everyone has equal opportunity and that unequal rewards are the 'natural' of unequal ability.
- 89Natural Changethe difference between the number of births and the number of deaths in a population, resulting in either a natural increase or natural decrease
- 90Net Migrationthe difference between the number of immigrants entering a country and the number if emigrants leaving it
- 91New Righta conservative political perspective whose supporters believe in self-reliance and individual choice, rather than dependence on the state.
- 92New Vocationalismthe idea that education should be primarily about meeting the needs of the economy, especially by equipping young people with the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values needed to prepare for work
- 93Non-Participant Observationa primary research method where the observer records events without taking part in them.
- 94Normssocial rules, expectations or standards that govern the behaviour expected in particular situations.
- 95Nuclear Familya two-generation family of a man and woman and their dependent children, own or adopted
- 96Objectivitythe absence of bias or preconceived ideas. It implies that we can look at things as they really are, without our opinions or values getting in the way.
- 97Official Statisticsquantitative data collected by the government
- 98Open-Ended Questionsquestions in a social survey that allow respondents to answer as they wish, in their own words.
- 99Operationalisationthe process of turning a sociological concept or theory into something measurable.
- 100Parentocracyliterally, 'rule by parents'. The concept is associated with marketised education systems, which are based on ideology of parental choice of school.
- 101Participant Observationa primary research method in which the sociologists studies a group by taking a role within it and participating in it activities.
- 102Patriarchyliterally, rule by the Father. Feminists use the term to describe a society based on male domination.
- 103Pilot Studya small-scale trial run, usually of a social survey, conducted before the main study.
- 104Polarisationa process that results in the creation of two opposite extremes
- 105Populationin a social survey, the population is all the members of the group that the researcher is interested in
- 106Positivismthe belief that society is made up of 'social facts' that can be studied scientifically to discover laws cause and effect.
- 107Post-Fordisma type of industrial production. A highly skilled, adaptable workforce, combined with computerised technology.
- 108Postmodernisma perspective that rejects the modernists' belief in progress and their view that we can have certain true knowledge of society that will enable us to improve it.
- 109Primary Datainformation collected first hand by sociologists themselves for their own research purposes.
- 110Privatised Familya nuclear family whose lifestyle and leisure patterns centre on the home rather than the extended family, workmates or wider community.
- 111Proletariatthe working class in capitalist society they own no means of production and are 'wage slaves', forced to sell their labour-power to the bourgeoisie in order to survive
- 112Pure Relationshipone which exists solely to meet each other partner's needs.
- 113Qualitative Datainformation, usually expressed in words, about people's thoughts, feelings, motivations, attitudes, values etc.
- 114Quantitative Datainformation in numerical form.
- 115Questionnaireslist of questions. Written or self-completion questionnaires are widely used in large-scale social surveys, where they may be sent out and returned by post.
- 116Racisma system of beliefs that defines people as superior or inferior, and justifies their unequal treatment, on the basis of biological differences such as skin colour.
- 117Reconstituted Familya stepfamily, in which one or both partners has children from a previous relationship.
- 118Reliabilitya piece of research is reliable if it produces exactly the same results when repeated using identical methods and procedures
- 119Representativetypical; a cross-section. A researcher may choose to study a sample of a larger group.
- 120Reproductionthe re-creation or continuation of something into future generations.
- 121Reserve Army of Laboura Marxist concept describing groups who can be brought into the workforce when there is a labour shortage as the capitalist economy expands during a boom, and discarded when it contracts
- 122Response Ratethe proportion of those people included in a social survey who actually reply or respond to the questions asked.
- 123Rolehow someone who occupies a particular status is expected to act.
- 124Samplea smaller group selected from the larger survey population to take part in a study.
- 125Samplingthe process of selecting a sample. The aim of sampling is usually to select a sample that is representative of the wider survey population, so to allow the study's finding to be generalised.
- 126Sampling Framethe list of people from which a sample for a social survey is selected
- 127Secondary Datainformation collected not by sociologists themselves for their own research purposes, but by other people or organisations for non-sociological purposes.
- 128Secularisationthe decline of religion; the process whereby religious beliefs, practises and institutions lose their importance or influence.
- 129Selectionin education, the process of choosing and allocating pupils to particular school, class, stream etc.
- 130Self-Fulfilling Prophecywhere a prediction made about a person or group comes true simply because it has been made
- 131Separatisma radical feminist idea that women should live independently of men as the only way to free themselves from the patriarchal oppression of the heterosexual family.
- 132Sexismprejudice and discrimination on the grounds of sex
- 133Sexualitysexual orientation; a person's sexual preference; e.g heterosexual, homosexual (gay or lesbian)
- 134Social Action Theoriessee individuals as having free will and choice, and the power to create society through their actions and interactions, rather than being shaped by society.
- 135Social Classsocial groupings or hierarchy based on differences in wealth, income or occupation.
- 136Social Constructionwhere something is created by social processes, rather than simply occurring naturally.
- 137Social Controlthe means by which society tries to ensure that its members behave as others expect them to.
- 138Social Policythe actions, plans and programmes of government bodies and agencies that aim to deal with a problem or achieve a goal.
- 139Social Surveyand research method that involves systematically collecting information from a group of people by asking them questions.
- 140Socialisationthe process by which an individual learns or internalises the culture of society.
- 141Speech Codepatterns of ways of using language.
- 142Stabilisation of Adult Personalitiesaccording to Parsons, one of the two functions of the nuclear family along with primary socialisation.
- 143Statusa position in society.
- 144Stereotypea simplified, one-sided and often negative image of a group or individual which assumes that all members of that group share the same characteristics
- 145Stigmaa negative label or mark of disapproval, discredit or shame attached to a person, group or characteristic.
- 146Stratificationthe division of society into a hierarchy of unequal groups.
- 147Stratified Diffusionthe spread of beliefs and practices from one social class to another.
- 148Streamingwhere children are separated into different ability groups or classes and then each ability group is taught separately from the others for all subjects
- 149Structural Theoriessee individuals as entirely shaped by the way society is structured or organised
- 150Subculturea group of people within society who share norms, values, beliefs and attitudes that are in some ways different from or opposed to the mainstream culture
- 151Symmetrical FamilyYoung and Willmott's 'stage three' privatised nuclear family with more equal and joint conjugal roles, in which husbands participate in domestic labour as well as being breadwinners and wives go out to work as well as being homemakers
- 152Triangulationthe use of two or more different methods or sources of data so that they complement each other, the strengths of one countering the weaknesses of the other and vice versa.
- 153Tripartite Systemthe system of secondary education created by the 1994 Education Act, based on three types of school. The 11+ exam was used to identify pupils' aptitudes and abilities.
- 154Underclassthose at the lowest level of the class structure; a class below the working class with a separate, deviant subculture and lifestyle, including a high rate of lone-parent families, male unemployment and criminality.
- 155Unit of Consumptionunlike the pre-industrial family, the modern family no longer works together, but still consumes together as a single unit or group the income that its members earn
- 156Unit of Productionwhere family members work together as economic producers, said to be more common in pre-industrial society
- 157Urbanisationthe process of change from a rural society where the majority of the population lives in the countryside to an urban society where most people live in towns and cities
- 158Validitythe capacity of a research method to measure what it sets out to measure; a true or genuine picture of what something is really like.
- 159Value Consensusagreement among society's members about what values are important; a shared culture.
- 160Valuesideas or beliefs about general principles or goals.
- 161Variablesany factor that can change or vary; such as age, gender, occupation or income.
- 162Vocationalconnected to a career. Vocational education and training transmits knowledge, skills and attitudes needed to pursue particular careers.
- 163Welfare Statewhere the government or state takes responsibility for people's well being, especially their basic minimum needs.
- 164BourgeoisieMarx argues that the bourgeoisie's ownership of the means of production also gives them political and ideological power
- 165ChildhoodWestern societies today define children as vulnerable and segregate from the adult world, but in the past they were part of adult society from an early age
- 166CurriculumThe overt or official curriculum includes the subjects, courses etc offered while the hidden curriculum includes all those things learnt without being formally taught and often acquired simply through the everyday workings of the school, such as attitudes of obedience, conformity and competitiveness.
- 167Dependency CultureThe New Right see the welfare state as over-generous, encouraging people to remain unemployed and dependent on benefits, and as responsible for the growing number of lone parent families and rising crime rates
- 168DevianceDeviance is a social construction.
Deviance is relative. - 169FeminismFeminists argue that sociology has traditionally taken a 'malestream' viewpoint that ignores women.
- 170IdentityPostmodernists see identity as a choice of individuals make from among different sources of identity, such as gender, ethnic group, religion, sexuality, leisure interests, nationality etc.
- 171InterviewsStructured Interviews use pre-set, standardised, usually closed-ended questions producing quantitative data.
Unstructured Interviews are more like a guided conversation and use open-ended questions producing qualitative data.
Semi-Structured interviews include both types of question.
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- All Key Concepts for Sociology from Rob Webb AQA book
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