Gender and Identity

Gender and Identity

1. Changing Gender and Identity?

   • Wilkinson
     • Young people are now more confident in expressing their identity, in that boys and girls are choosing to reject traditional expectations and stereotypes
   • Connell
     • There are a range of masculine identities in the UK: Hegemonic Masculinity: Being strong, tough, and heterosexual Complicit Masculinity: Men who are less sexist and more in touch with their feelings Subordinate Masculinity: Refers to homosexuality Marginalised Masculinity: Men suffering from the 'crisis of masculinity'
   • Abbot
     • There has been a shift in the fashion styles of young men, and they are gaining pleasure from a traditionally female focus on personal appearance
   • Sharpe
     • Observed a clear shift in female priorities Girls in the 1970s were focused on getting married and having children, though by the 1990s girls were prioritising education and careers over family and marriage
   • Jackson (2006)
     • Studied 'ladettes' in school - girls who were anti-education They acted this way to fit in and be socially accepted and also as a defence mechanism They were afraid of trying and then failing so preferred not to try at all
   • Mac an Ghaill (1994)
     • Says a decline in traditionally masculine jobs has led to men becoming concerned about fulfilling their role as breadwinner
     • Canaan (1996)
       • Studied working-class men in Wolverhampton, and asked them what they thought was most important about being a man Employed men gave predictable responses related to fighting, drinking and sexual conquests, while unemployed men responses that having a job was the most important thing and that they felt emasculated without one

2. Biological View

   • Wilson (1975)
     • Says the need to reproduce requires men to be more promiscuous Women, however, need to nurture one child and stay faithful to the father to ensure his help in their upbringing

3. Family

   • Oakley (1981)
     • Children are socialised into their gender identities through: Manipulation: Means encouraging behaviour which is stereotypically acceptable for the child's genderCanalisation: Their interests are channelled into gender-specific toys, games and activitiesVerbal Appellation: Means giving gender-specific nicknames, such as 'bud' for boys and 'angel' for girls Different Activities: Family members may encourage children to participate in activities which reinforce stereotypes, such as a girl helping her mother with baking or a boy helping his father clean the car

4. Education

   • Frosh (2002)
     • Boys who valued academic success were often seen as feminine, and were teased by other students
   • Mac an Ghaill (1994)
     • Gender power, based on 'hypermasculinity', was the main source of identity for the 'macho lads' who valued the '3 F's' They have also used this to confront the 'crisis of masculinity' - the decline in traditionally male occupations
   • Stanworth (1983)
     • Studied girls in Further Education colleges, and found that they received little attention from teachers which led to them developing narrow expectations of themselves They often had their names forgotten, and were allowed to simply blend into the background of the class

5. Media

   • Gauntlett (2002)
     • Magazines, films, and television programmes inform men and women on how to be attractive Women should be slim and concerned with personal beauty, while men should be athletic and muscular

6. Work

   • Adkins (1995)
     • Women's jobs in the service sector are mostly based around sexuality They are often chosen for their looks, and expected to behave in a way which appeals to men

7. Religion

   • Holm (2004)
     • Women play a subordinate role to men in nearly all religions For exmaple, Islam often prohibits women from entering mosques, and the Catholic Church refuses to ordain female bishops

8. Peer Group

   • Lees (1986)
     • Found that female peer groups place a great stress on looking right It was important not to dress too "sexy" otherwise they will be labelled as slags and have their reputations ruined
   • Hey (1997)
     • Notes how the norms and values of the female peer group are deeply rooted in patriarchy and how girls should be
   • Connell (1995)
     • Male peer groups encourage boys to conform to hegemonic masculinity and conceal any 'girly' signs of gentleness and kindness

9. Functionalist View

   • Parsons (1955)
     • Argues that gender roles are beneficial for the family and society, as men and women are naturally better at being instrumental and expressive leaders, respectively