Chapter 6: Learning

Chapter 6: Learning

1. any relatively durable change in behaviour or knowledge that is due to experience

   • Observational Learning Learning that occurs as a result of observing the experiences of others • Also called social learning or modelling. Think: What would life be like if you could only learn through your own trial and error? Observational learning occurs in many species, including chimpanzees, rhesus monkeys and some birds Natural tendency to imitate behaviour of significant others
     • Practical Applications Particularly relevant to children Modeling techniques such as films have been used to reduce fears, promote positive behaviour Television may however, produce modeling of negative behaviour (aggression, stereotyping)
       • Mirror neurons are neurons that are activated by performing an action or by seeing another monkey or person perform the same action

2. Classical conditioning

   • Initially developed by ivan Pavlov
     • • Also called Pavlovian conditioning. Pavlov helped turn psychology in the direction of the scientific approach
   • refers to a type of learning in which a stimulus gets the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by a physically natural stimulus • Also called Pavlovian conditioning. Pavlov helped turn psychology in the direction of the scientific approach
     • • Phobias: irrational fears of specific objects or situations.
     • • Conditioning: Learning connections between events in the environment
   • Terms of Classical conditioning
     • Unconditioned stimulus (US): A stimulus that automatically leads to an observable response prior to any training (natural reflexive response).
     • Unconditioned response (UR) The observable response that is produced automatically, prior to training, on presentation of US.
     • Conditioned stimulus (CS): Neutral stimulus that is paired with the US during classical conditioning
     • Conditioned response (CR): The acquired response produced by the conditioned stimulus in anticipation of the US.
     • Trial - a presentation of a stimulus or pair of stimuli
   • Basic Processes in Classical Conditioning
     • Acquisition – acquiring (learning) the new behaviour Usually something novel, unusual or very intense that results in classical conditioning. Timing is another factor. Stimulus contiguity – how close the stimuli are together
       • Extinction: Presenting a CS repeatedly, after conditioning, without the US, resulting in no response.
         • Spontaneous Recovery: Recovery of an extinguished CR after a period of nonexposure to the CS - Often the CR isn’t as strong as it once was
           • Renewal Effect: If a response is extinguished in a different environment from where it was acquired, it will reappear once the animal or person is returned to the original environment.
             • Stimulus generalization: Responding to a new stimulus in a way similar to the response produced by an established CS In this case, a similar stimulus leads to a similar CR
               • Stimulus Discrimination: Responding differently to a new stimulus than one responds to established CS
   • Higher Order Conditioning • After a conditioned stimulus reliably elicits a response, this conditioned stimulus can be paired with another stimuli which also elicits the same response. If Pavlov had put on a red light each time he rang the bell, the dogs would begin to salivate to the red light even though the red light was never paired with the meat.

3. Operant Conditioning

   • Operant Conditioning is a form of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences of their own voluntary actions
     • Law of Effect (Thorndike) • If a response in a particular situation is followed by a satisfying consequence, it will be strengthened; if followed by an unsatisfying consequence, it will be weakened
       • Reinforcement occurs when an event following a response increases a person or animal’s tendency to make that response.
   • B.F. Skinner took the a perspective on human and animal behaviour that emphasizes explaining behaviour in terms of environmental events and that minimized the use of internal explanations, like thoughts, beliefs, and intentions
   • Acquisition In operant conditioning, acquisition also refers to the initial stage of learning a new response. Some responses are more complex and require a process called shaping. Shaping occurs when rewards are given for behaviour that is closer and closer to the desired end result.
     • Extinction: Response is no longer followed by a reinforcer. When the reinforcer is withdrawn, the animal or person often increases the behavior. Then the behavior decreases gradually. E.g. The rat believes that pressing a lever dispenses food so presses more in case it will continue. Children will do the same thing if a parent is used to buying a child candies in a store to get them to stop crying. If the parent absolutely refuses, the child will cry harder until they see that the parent definitely will not reinforce them.
       • Resistance to extinction: sometimes you want resistance (e.g. positive behaviours) Schedules of reinforcement affect this
       • Primary reinforcers – events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs. For humans, food, water, warmth, sex, affection involving bodily contact.
         • Secondary or conditioned, reinforcers – associated with primary reinforcers and so acquire reinforcing qualities.

4. Schedules of Reinforcement

   • Rules that an experimenter uses to determine when particular responses will be reinforced • Strongly affects speed and strength of training
     • Continuous: Every response followed rapidly by reinforcement
       • All of the following schedules are Intermittent or Partial Reinforcement: Reinforcement delivered only some of the time. They can be: 1) Ratio 2) Interval

5. Ratio Scedules

   • Ratio, a number of responces
     • Fixed-Ratio Schedules  Number of responses required for reinforcement stays the same • Example: Salesperson paid for every 10 sales • Tend to produce steady, consistent rates of responding, but might stop for a period after reinforcement • Extinction when reinforcement no longer given
     • Variable-Ratio Schedules A certain number of responses required for reinforcement, but this number changes Example: Salesperson paid after some number of sales, but doesn’t know how many sExtinction takes much longer
   • Variable Ratio schedules (associated with VLT machines) have the most rapid and steady responding and the highest resistance to extinction

6. Interval Scedule

   • Interval, time on the clock
     • Fixed-interval: Reinforcement delivered for first response after a fixed allotment of time
     • Variable-interval: Allotted time before a response will yield reinforcement changes Example: Salesperson paid for first sale on randomly chosen day

7. Positive and negative reinforcement

   • • Positive Reinforcement: Increase in responding is due to giving something good or rewarding
   • • Negative Reinforcement: Increased responding is due to removing something bad (aversive)
     • Escape Response- learning a response to end or decrease an aversive stimulus
     • Avoidance Response - acquiring a response that prevents some aversive stimulus from even occurring at all. Rat gets a signal (typically a light) that the shock is coming and it learns to run before the shock comes on. - turning on the fan before it gets really hot in the room. - Begins with classical conditioned fear to shock and is maintained with operant conditioning due to the removal of the fear (neg. reinforcement)
     • Punishment : Consequences that decrease the likelihood of responding in a similar way again • Example: Time out – fun removed for misbehaviour, driver loses licence.
       • Side Effects of Physical Punishment of Children
         • Supreme Court of Canada ruled that a parent can legally spank their child (“reasonable corrective force”) only for children between ages 2 and 12 and never on the head or with objects. Physical Punishment is associated with poor quality parent-child relationships, elevated aggression, delinquency and behavioural problems in children. It increases the likelihood of child abuse. In adulthood, people may experience increased aggression criminal behavior, mental health problems, and child abuse. Evidence is correlational so does not indicate causation. Also research often does not distinguish between infrequent, moderate, corporal punishment and harsh punishment more often.
   • The terms positive and negative simply refer to whether response increases because of the presentation of something (positive) or because of the removal of something (negative) As it applies to reinforcement Positive = something good is given Negative = something bad is removed