Utilitarianism

Page 1

Utilitarianism

Introduction

It's an ethical theory which can best be summed up by the phrase 'the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number. In terms of morality, our actions are considered to be good if they create the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number, whereas our actions are considered to be bad if they create the greatest amount of unhappiness for the greatest number. Utilitarianism can also be referred to as a theory of utility and it encourages us to give back in a way which is useful for society. Unlike natural law, which is an absolutist, deontological theory based on religious beliefs, Utilitarianism is a secular, teleological theory, which takes into consideration the consequences of our actions rather than our actions themselves. Therefore, for the utilitarian, the end justifies the means. Utilitarianism can also be called a relativist theory as morality varies depending on the person and the circumstance.

Origins

Utilitarianism can be traced back to Greek philosophers. Aristotle promoted good conduct in society as this would lead to greatest amount of happiness. Epicurus believed that a good life consisted of the maximization of happiness and the minimization of pain. However, it was the English philosopher Jeremy Bentham who founded the theory. A very intelligent man who was heavily involved in politics and ethics, having produced a number of influential works: 'fragment of government' and principles of morals and legalization'. His views lead to a number of reforms among institutions in the 18th century. The theory was further developed by Thomas Mill, he also produced influential works: 'on liberty' and 'utilitarianism'. He set an even higher standard of morality than Bentham.

Bentham

Bentham believed that humans were motivated by the need for experiences of pleasure and to avoid experiences of pain. He wrote: 'Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two masters, pain and pleasure'. He claimed that it was good to promote happiness and bad to promote unhappiness. For Bentham, the utility or usefulness of an action determined whether it was right or wrong. According to Bowie, Bentham believed: 'Good is the maximization of pleasure and the minimization of pain. Bentham provided means to calculating how much pleasure an action would create, this was known as the hedonic calculus and this would be used in a moral dilemma. According to Bentham, there are seven factors that determine the morality of an action: intensity, duration, certainty, extent, remoteness, richness and purity. Bowie states: 'The balance of pleasures and pains is compared with those of other options and the best result determined'. Bentham's hedonic calculus has faced much criticism as it is so speculative and places much emphasis on the quantity rather than quality of pleasure. Bowie adds than the hedonic calculus could justify act act if it generates the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number.

Mill

Mill agreed with the utilitarian principle of the greatest happiness for the greatest number. However, Mill was aware of problems associated with Bentham's approach. In particular, the quantity over quality of pleasure aspect. Vardy and Grosch comment that he wanted to define pleasure a little more carefully and this involved shifting the emphasis from quantity to quality. Mill believed that there were different levels of pleasure, those associated with the mind for example, literary and artistic pleasures he considered to be more useful than physical pleasures such as eating and drinking. Higher pleasures demand more sophistication, lower pleasures are no more than animal instinct. Mill explained that it is better to be a human dissatisfied than a pig satisfied. Mill also added the harm principle to Bentham's theory in order to protect individual from suffering at the hands of a majority. Mill felt that Bentham's theory was antinomian and that it was necessary to have some rules. Mill believed that its necessary to direct all people to tell the truth. as in the long therm this would create the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest number. However, Mill wasn't a moral absolutist and he did agree that in certain circumstances it is necessary to lie.

Rule Utilitarianism

Because he agreed to the importance of rules within utilitarianism, Mill's approach to it is referred to as rule utilitarianism. Vardy and Grosch define this approach as one which should first frame general principles or rules and from these can be derived specific acts which aren't permitted. Some scholars have divided rule utilitarianism into two different categories - strong rule utilitarianism insists that the rules are created using utilitarian principles shouldn't be broken, whilst weak rule utilitarianism argues that in some cases the greatest amount of happiness is promoted by breaking the rule. While rule utilitarianism is associated with Mill, classical utilitarianism is associated with Bentham. According to Bowie, "act utilitarianism maintains that whenever possible the principle of utility must be directly applied for each individual situation".

Preference utilitarianism considers the happiness of those directly involved in the issue rather than society in general. According to Thompson, this takes into account the preferences of the individuals involved, except where those preferences come into direct conflict with preferences of others.

Everyday Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism is an ethical theory which is still used today and can easily be applied to a range of ethical issues. For utilitarians, contraception is morally acceptable for couples who don't want children or couples who want to limit their family size. For utilitarians, two consenting adults who are happy in a same sex relationship is considered moral also. This is a practical theory that can be applied to many aspects of society today.