BIO 150 Mind Map

BIO 150 Mind Map

1. Biodiversity (Week 1)

   • Interferences
     • Human living/distruction
       • Pollution
     • Natural disasters
   • What is it?
     • Variety of life on earth
       • All different types of organisms
         • Includes all five main kingdoms
   • Ways to preserve biodiversity
     • conserve water
     • clean up pollution
     • reduce invasive species
       • habitat restoration
     • We might consider the fitness of an organism when thinking about threats to their habitats. Organisms might rely on fitness (survivorship and reproduction in order to survive.

2. Evolution (Week 2 & 3)

   • Mutations
     • Advantageous Mutations: beneficial (rare)
     • Deleterious Mutations: harmful (most common)
   • Organisms
     • Species: a group that share alleles
       • gene pool: all alleles present in species
         • population: interbreeding groups / same geography
           • POPULATIONS EVOLVE, NOT INDIVIDUALS
     • All organisms are effected. Our actions on their environment effect their ability to evolve, which leads to change in natural selection.
   • Hardy - Weinbrug Equalibrium
     • WHAT MUST BE PRESENT
       • selection
         • large population
           • migration does not become involved
             • no mutation
               • mate at random
   • Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection: allele frequencies changing from generation to generation according to the allele's effect
     • These theories take two different approaches but have similar ideas.
     • "Genetic variation lead to others surviving and reproducing more than others."
   • Modern Synthesis
     • Combines Mendelian geentics and Darwinism
       • Positive Selection: natural selection that increases the frequency of an advantageous allele
       • Negative Selection: natural selection that decreases the frequency of an advantageous allele
         • Natural Selection
           • Positive: variant increases in population until "fixation"
           • Negative: variant "purges" from the population
           • Balancing selection: maintaining a mix of alleles
             • heterozygote advantage: dominant allele is expressed
           • Natural selection and modern synthesis combine Mendelian genetics and Darwinism.
           • SPECIES ARE NOT INDIVIDUALS.
           • Natural selection can occur after speciation.
         • In addition to disruptive, stabilizing, and directional we have:
           • Sexual Selection
             • Intersexual selection: female choice / sexual dimorphism
             • intrasexual selection: competition within genders
     • Selections
       • Unimodal vs. Bimodal
   • Mendelian Genetics
     • The punnet squares
       • Hardy Weinburg Equilibrium
         • How to calculate ALLELIC frequencies
           • p + q = 1
             • Dominant trait (A) = p
             • Recessive Trait (a) = q
         • How to calculate GENOTYPIC frequencies
           • p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1
             • p^2 = homozygous dominant (AA)
             • q^2 = homozygous recessive (aa)
             • 2pq = heterozygous dominant (Aa)
             • In this case, we can only find the homozygous recessive (aa) by looking at the organism.
         • Genetic drift may occur due to an imbalance in hardy Weinberg equilibrium.
   • Fitness: combination of survivorship and reproduction
   • Genetic Drift: change in allele frequency due to random sampling of organisms
     • Variation in the relative frequency of different genotypes in a small population
     • Bottleneck: reproduction in population size due to a disturbance (in a geographic region)
     • Founder Effect: individuals from a large population size colonize new areas (time AND space)
     • Gene flow: random genetic exchnage of alleles among populations due to migration
       • Most populations are not isolated.
         • Gene flow has a homozygous effect: decreases differences in genetic variation.

3. Week 3: Speciation / Macroevolution

   • Speciation: the process that produces new and distinct forms of life
     • clustered together based on their ability / inability to exchange genetic material by producing fertile offspring
       • migration = more mutations
       • closed gene pool: alleles are shared among members of that species but usually not with members of others
     • Speciation can result from human interference. .
     • We know species are NOT individuals.
   • Reproductive Isolation
     • Pre-Zygotic Stage
       • gametic isolation: incompatibilities between gamates fo 2 species
         • mechanical isolation: not matching
           • temporal isolation: time
             • geographic isolation: location
     • Post-Zygotic Stage
       • Hybrid viability and sterilization - failure to fertilize
   • Concepts to know:
     • Biological Species Concept (BSC): "Species are groups of actually or potentially extinct interbreeding populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups."
     • Morphospecies Concept: members of the same species look alike (shape, size, color)
       • Polymorphsims: different phenotypes
       • cryptic species: belongs to 2 species due to different DNA
       • These can also be known as phenotypes.
     • Ecological Species Concept (ESC): one-to-one correspondance between a species and its niche
     • Phylogenetic Species Concept (PSC): emphasized that members of a species all share a common ancestry and a common fate
   • Allopatric Speciation
     • "different place"; resulting from geographical seoparation of populations results in more subspecies
       • dispersal: individuals colonize a distant place
       • vicariance: geographic barrier arises within single popualtion = 2 isolated populations
     • Adaptive Radiation: natural selection accelerates the rates of speciation and adaptation
     • Genetic drift can cause speciation
   • Sympatric Speciation
     • Sympatric speciation is disruptive selection.
     • same species, different place
       • bimodal

4. Week 5 Phylogeny and Fossils

   • Evolution produces 2 related patterns.
     • 1. Present day earth
     • 2. Fossils
       • preserved through time in sedimentary rocks
         • molecular fossils: relatively resistant to decomposition; documenting organisms that rarely form conventional fossils
           • geological timescale: series of time divisions that mark Earth's long history
             • radiometric dating: using radioactive decay of the isotope C-14 to date wood and bone
               • half life: the period when nitrogen decays to nitrogen in 5370 years
       • How did natural selection work amongst dated fossils?
     • Phylogeny: history of descent with branching; tree like pattern
       • Labeled phylogentic tree
       • Important phylogentic tree terms
         • node: represents the most recent common ancestor
           • taxonomy: recognize and name groups of individuals as species
             • taxon/taxa: naming groups
             • Domain > Kingdom > Phylum > Class > Order > Family > Genus > Species
               • Biodiversity allows for equal distrubuted groups of species.
       • Groups
         • sister groups: groups that are more closely related to each other than either of them is to any other group
           • monophyletic: all members share a common ancestor EX: amphibians
             • paraphyletic: includes some but not all of the descendents of a common ancestor EX: reptiles
               • polyphyletic: do not include the last common ancestor of all members EX: birds in a group
         • Allopatric can be a common cause for groups that are developed beyond mutations and adaptations.
       • Building a Phylogentic Tree
         • characters: anatomical, physiological, or molecular features that make up organism
           • homologous/homology: characters that are similar because of descent from a common ancestor
           • analogous/analogy: result of convergent evolution; non-similarities
           • synapmorphies: homologies that are shared by some, but not all, of the members of the group under consideration
             • cladistics: phylogenetic reconstruction
         • Genetic drift can cause change in structures of organisms and lead to anagolous structures.
       • Allele frequencies can lead to understanding of phylogentic trees.

5. Week 6: Bacteria and Archaea

   • Prokaryotic Cell
     • What the cell does not include:
       • NO membrane-bound nuclei
         • NO energy producing organelles
           • NO sex
       • The concepts might explain differences between eukaryotic vs. prokaryote.
     • Carbon Cycle
       • CO2 to reduced to form carbohydrates
       • H2O is oxidized to form O2
       • oxygenic: oxygen producing
         • aerobic: oxygen using
           • anoxygenic: not producing oxygen (cynobacteria)
             • bacteriochlorophyll: light-harvesting pigment
               • fermentation: produce ATP from the partial oxidation of organic molecules without oxidative phosphoration or an electron acceptor
       • 2 sources of energy
         • 1. sun: phototrophs
           • 2. chemical compounds: chemotrophs
       • 2 sources of carbon
         • 1. autotrophs: CO2 (inorganic)
           • 2. heterotrophs: glucose (organic)
         • Phylogeny can cause processes to occur amongst organisms.
       • Can isolation be caused by the carbon cycle? The carbon cycle would be a cause isolation.
   • Key Parts:
     • plasmids: small circles of DNA that replicate independently of the cells circular chromosome
       • peptidoglycan: (structural support) - cell wall; complex polymer of sugars and amino acids
   • Transcribed mRNA is immediately translated into proteins by ribosomes.
     • Cell processes (metabolism) are carried out by proteins that float freely in cytoplasm.
   • Photosynthetic bacteria: use of oxygen
     • Respiring bacteria: use of small organic molecules and oxygen
     • DIFFUSION
     • Speciation can effect photosynthesis or respiration processes.
   • Horizontal Gene Transfer: promotes genetic diversity in bacteria
     • Do NOT undergo melotic cell division and cell fusion
   • Processes
     • conjugation: commonly transfers plasmids from one cell to another, spreading novel genes throughout a population
       • transformation: DNA released to the environment by cell breakdown
         • transduction: horizontal gene transfer by means of viruses

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