Research Methods

Research Methods

1. Sampling

   • Volunteer
     • put themselves forwards
       • representative sample
   • Stratified
     • sample proportionally reflects population in sub - groups
     • representative
     • can't full reflect everyone
   • Oppurtunity
     • people available at the time of the study
       • easy and quick
       • biased
   • Random
     • selected rsndomly, equal chance for all
       • not everyone willing, time consuming
     • unbiased
   • Systematic
     • every nth member of target population
     • objective, no influence over sample
     • time consuming, refusal

2. Experiments

   • Quasi
     • exsisting differences between people
       • controlled, replicatable
       • confounding variables
   • Lab
     • tightly controlled, IV manipulated, DV measured
       • control extraneous variables, replicated easily
       • demand characterisitcs, not relevant to real life
         • changing behaviour because of research situation
   • Field
     • natural environment typical to study
       • unaware they are being studied
       • no control over extraneous variables, ethical issues
   • Natural
     • IV is naturally occuring
       • studies real problems
       • unsure whether IV affects DV

3. Experimental Designs

   • Independant measures
     • 2 seperate groups, 1 for each condition
       • individuals differences of personality effect results
       • No order of effects
   • Repeated Measures
     • 1 group do both conditions
       • reduces individual differences
       • Order of effects
         • Practice - become better by 2nd condition
         • Fatigue - tired after 1st condition
   • Matched pairs
     • 2 groups mathced into pairs based on similar traits
     • time consuming

4. Ethical issues

   • Consent
     • told information about study aims and ptps role, sign a form
   • Confidentiality
     • personal information anomlyous and safe
   • Deception
     • not told true aims of study
   • Protection from harm
     • protect participants from physical/ psychological harm
   • Right to withdraw
     • can pull out of study at any given time

5. Variables

   • Independant
     • Manipulated/ changed
   • Dependent
     • Measured
   • Extraneous
     • affects DV if not controlled
   • Confounding
     • influnences reuslts but uncontrollable

6. Observations

   • Naturalistic
     • natural setting, expect to be observed
       • generlasie findings
       • replication difficult
   • Participant
     • observer becomes pat of group
       • experience as a ptp, more valid
       • line between roles blurred
   • Controlled
     • variables contolled by researcher
       • control over EV
       • findings not relevant to real life
   • Covert
     • ptps unaware, no consent, observer away from view
       • ethical issues
       • no demand characteristcs, natural behaviour
   • overt
     • full consent, aware being watched
       • ethically acceptable
   • Non - participant
     • observer remains separate
       • too far removed from study
       • distant role of ptp and observer

7. Measures of central tendency and dispersion

   • Mean
     • average, add values and divide by amount of them
       • takes all data into account
       • distorted by extremities
   • Median
     • middle number when ordered smallest to largest
       • doesn't represent all data
   • range
     • spread of values, difference between smallest and largest
       • easy to calculate
       • doesn't consider how large data set is
   • mode
     • most frequent occurring value in a data set
       • used with all data types, not affected by extremes
   • standard deviation
     • spread of data around the mean
       • precise measures, all data used
       • doesn't show anomalties

8. Self - report techniques

   • Questionnaires
     • number of questions to find how people think or feel
     • open questions
       • requires detailed response
     • closed questions
       • yes/no or quantative data
   • Interviews
     • Spoken questionnaires
     • strucutred
       • pre - determined questions asked in set order
     • unstrucutred
       • flexible dependant on answers - conversational

9. Hypothesis

   • Directional
     • predicts the way a study will go
   • Non - directional
     • only states there will be an impact
     • null
       • no effect, chance alone

10. Types of data

    • Primary
      • collected by researcher at the time
    • Secondary
      • existing data, previously found and later used
    • Quantative
      • numerical, objective nut no meaning
    • Qualitative
      • descriptive words

11. Pilot studies

    • small scale run of experiment to check runs smoothly and correct errors

12. investigator effects

    • researcher unintentionally effects results (behavioural cues)

13. event sampling

    • time sampling
      • counting behaviour within a set time frame
    • counting times behaviour occurs

14. Disrubtions

    • postively scewed
      • mean to right of mode and median
    • negatively scewed
      • mean to left of mode and median

15. peer review

    • other expert judges quality of research and check for error
    • allocate funding
    • validate relevance and quality
    • suggest improvements